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EN
The history of development of various societies and communities contains elements which are both colorful and disquieting, being the result of shared concerns, uncertainty or an attempt at providing an explanation for phenomena which could not be clarified by means of the then level of knowledge or science. One of the phenomena concerned the (alleged) magic and other co-related practices which appeared in folk beliefs as well as in the mainstream of popular culture (this shall concern especially the events occurring in the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe and North America). The objective of this article is to scrutinize the problem of magic in its cultural and legal aspect. By a social analysis of cultural circumstances characterizing the American population of that period, it becomes possible to describe and understand the foundations of behaviors and acts leading in a given community to alienation and death of those suspected of collusions with unclean spirits and sentenced in the name of preserving public security and order or adjusting to the existing social system and binding religious and legal principles. Taking into consideration the fact that in many countries the apparatus of hunting and judging witches and wizards had an institutionalized form, it becomes justifiable to refer to various texts of culture produced on the territory of the United States of America reporting on the cases examined by courts and describing the mechanisms of fighting with individuals devoting to illegal and unacceptable practices.
EN
The article gives a short overview of the Estonian werewolf tradition in the 16th and 17th centuries and a glimpse into the 19th–20th-century werewolf beliefs. The image of werewolf of the earlier and later periods is compared. The differences between the images of these two periods are explained with the help of the approaches of Tim Ingold and Philipp Descola, which ground the changes in the worldview taking place together with the shift from the pre-modern society into modernity. The mental world of the 16th–17th-century Estonian and Livonian peasant did not encompass the category of nature, and the borders between the human being and the animal on the one side and organism and environment on the other side were not so rigid as they are in today’s people’s comprehension of the world. The ability to change into a wolf was seen as an added possibility of acquiring new experiences and benefits. As the popular ontology had changed by the second half of the 19th century – the human mind was raised into the ultimate position and the animal was comprehended as being inferior – the transformation of a man into an animal, if it was seriously taken at all, seemed to be strange and unnatural.
EN
The purpose of this article is not only to bring out so far unknown details and correct confabulations, but also to look at the witch-hunt in the New Marchian – Greater Polish borderland through the prism of types of accusations. It will make possible to search for an answer to a question whether the data from the above defined territory were different from the cases cited in the literature of the subject. A significant group of accusations of witchcraft in the period of interest (16th−18th centuries) concerned using magic or sorcery in the interpersonal conflicts, e.g. over property. In the investigated material accusations of spoiling beer and contacts with the devil were also found. Moreover, the reason for a witch-trial became also magic practices for love and those used in the political games.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest nie tylko wydobycie nieznanych dotąd szczegółów i sprostowanie konfabulacji, ale również przyjrzenie się polowaniom na czarownice na pograniczu nowomarchijsko-wielkopolskim przez pryzmat rodzajów oskarżeń. Umożliwi to poszukanie odpowiedzi na pytanie czy dane ze zdefiniowanego obszaru różniły się od przypadków przytaczanych w literaturze przedmiotu. W znaczącej części oskarżenia o czary, w interesującym nas okresie (XVI–XVIII w.), dotyczyły stosowania magii lub czarów podczas konfliktów międzyludzkich, np. na tle majątkowym. W przebadanym materiale natrafiono również na oskarżenia o czary dotyczące psucia piwa i kontaktów z diabłem. Przyczyną procesu o czary stawały się też zabiegi magiczne na pozyskanie uczuć oraz rozgrywki polityczne.
EN
The file of witchcraft trials from the State Archives in Poznań was created by a special section of the SS, the so-called Hexen-Sonderkommando in 1935–1944. Despite some shortcomings and the passage of time, the file still has a scientific value.
EN
In this article, the author summarized the discussion on the theme emerging in the subject literature on Doruchów witchcraft trial of 1775. Except for the anonymous eyewitness account [Relacya], published in 1835 in the column of the “Przyjaciel Ludu” [Friend of the People] and a survey of 1828, there is no definite indication that such trial actually took place, and that up to fourteen women lost their lives after having been sentenced to death. The author of this article maintains that the trial is a myth, and the author of Relacya set it in Doruchów in that particular year for the reasons known only to himself. With all certainty, the only witchcraft trial confirmed by sources took place in Doruchów in 1762.
PL
W tym artykule autor podsumował dyskusję na temat pojawiającego się w literaturze przedmiotu procesu o czary w Doruchowie w 1775 r. Oprócz anonimowej Relacyi naocznego świadka opublikowanej w 1835 r. na łamach „Przyjaciela Ludu” oraz ankiety z 1828 r., brak jest przesłanek, które jednoznacznie pozwoliłyby stwierdzić, że taki proces rzeczywiście przeprowadzono i na mocy wyroku życie straciło aż 14 kobiet. Proces ten jest – zdaniem autora – mitem, a autor Relacyi… z wiadomych tylko sobie powodów umiejscowił go w Doruchowie w tym konkretnym roku. Z całą pewnością jedyny proces o czary, potwierdzony źródłowo, przeprowadzono w Doruchowie w 1762 r.
EN
There are many stereotypes related to witches and witch trials in the public’s imagination. One of the popular elements associated to this issue is the question of the witches’ Sabbath, which the witches attended. The Sabbath itself is a collection of the fantasies of late medieval and early modern society, with specific features depending on the region. Researchers assume that the sources of the meetings that later became known as the Sabbath were those attributed to heretics who worshiped the devil during them. This meeting was characterized by a certain order of rituals and customs. They could take place not only on such characteristic days as April 30, but also a week, up to three times. According to testimonies, witches arrived at the Sabbath on broomsticks or pitchforks, and during the meeting an orgy would often take place. These meetings took place in special places, mainly on various hills. The most famous mountains, where the Sabbaths took place, are Blocksberg in the Harz Mountains, Łysa Góra, and when it comes to the border area of Silesia and Moravia – Petrovy Kameny, which appear in large numbers in the testimonies of people accused of witchcraft in this area. This place, which is located on the border of the estate, was considered to be full of the forces of darkness, therefore in 1682 it was decided to consecrate it. Very often specific areas or regions “had” their own mountain where witch meetings took place. The Sabbaths could also take place in less obvious places, e.g. in clearings, trees, road branches or near the gallows. In some cases, in memory of such meetings, characteristic names such as Hexenplan or Hexenplatz remained, which not only can be found on old maps, but also function to this day in designated areas.
PL
W wyobraźni społeczeństwa funkcjonuje wiele stereotypów związanych z czarownicami, jak i z procesami o czary. Jednym z popularnych elementów związanych z tym zagadnieniem jest kwestia sabatu czarownic, na który owe uczęszczały. Sam sabat jest zbiorem fantazji późnośredniowiecznego i wczesnonowożytnego społeczeństwa, o specyficznych cechach, zależnych od regionu. Badacze wychodzą z założenia, że źródłem spotkań, które później zyskały miano sabatu, były te przypisywane heretykom, którzy podczas nich czcili diabła. Spotkanie to cechował pewien porządek rytuałów i obyczajów. Odbywać się one mogły nie tylko w takie charakterystyczne dni jak 30 kwietnia, lecz także w tygodniu, nawet do trzech razy. Według zeznań czarownice przylatywały na sabat na miotłach lub widłach, a podczas spotkania nierzadko miało dochodzić do orgii. Do spotkań tych dochodziło w szczególnych miejscach, przede wszystkim na różnego rodzaju wzniesieniach. Do najbardziej znanych gór, gdzie odbywały się sabaty, należą Blocksberg w Górach Harzu, Łysa Góra, a jeśli chodzi o pograniczne śląsko-morawskie – Petrovy Kameny, które licznie pojawiają się w zeznaniach osób oskarżonych o czary na tym obszarze. Miejsce to, które znajduje się na dawnym pograniczu dóbr, uchodziło za pełne sił ciemności, stąd też w 1682 r. zdecydowano się je poświęcić. Bardzo często konkretne obszary czy regiony „miały” własną górę, gdzie dochodziło do spotkań czarownic. Sabaty mogły się także odbywać w mniej oczywistych miejscach, np. na polanach, drzewach, rozgałęzieniach dróg czy w pobliżu szubienicy. W niektórych przypadkach na pamiątkę takich spotkań pozostały charakterystyczne nazwy, takie jak: Hexenplan czy Hexenplatz, które nie tylko można znaleźć na starych mapach, lecz także funkcjonują one do dzisiaj na wyznaczonych terenach.
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