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PL
The article concerns the expansion of the Frankish border towards the East, its participation in the Frankish policy during the reign of Charlemagne and Ludwig the Pious and the role it played in the history and culture of Central Europe. The configuration of the eastern border was the result of a victory in the war with the Saxons. Its genesis had a strategic goal, which was to  provide security to the main Carolingian centers of lay and church administration, located in the middle and lower valleys of the River Meuse and Skalda, and close to (about 100 km) Saxon territory. In the case of the second conflict, with emergency Awarian khaganate, its outburst was closely related to the Carolingian annexation of the Principality  of Agilolfing (Bavaria). After their completion, at the beginning of the ninth century, the eastern border of the Carolingian monarchy ran from the estuary of the Elbe and the Baltic coast to the Adriatic and Balkans. By its nature it did not resemble the Roman limes, it was more a zone than the system of linear fortifications. Charlemagne and Louis the Pious were not able to build a permanent system of frontier countries that acted as a buffer protecting the territory of the Frankish state from the east. The collapse of the emergency khaganate and the neighborhood of the Carolingian monarchy became a catalyst for political and social changes among the Slavic tribes settled above all middle of Danube and Adriatic regions. In contemporary culture, we can see the fusion of the inheritance with impacts from the territory of the Carolingian state (Bavaria, Italy, Saxony, Central Germany) and also from Byzantium.
PL
From its emergence in the 7th century until its fall in 965, the Khazar Khaganate played a decisive role among the tribes and peoples settled in Eastern Europe. The Pax Khazarica contributed to the stabilization of ethnic and political relations in the region, which in turn gave the khaganate a high status in contacts with the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate. The Khazars benefited from the favorable geographic location and the benefits they gained from participating in long-distance trade. With the arrival of Scandinavian newcomers and the development of their settlement in the northern and north-eastern part of the Ruthenian lands (the area around Lake Ladoga and the upper Volga basin), contacts with them played an increasingly important role in the history of the Chaganate in the 9th-10th centuries. Oleg’s taking of power in Kiev and the territorial development of the Ruthenian state was a crucial moment. Although the Khazars maintained a strong position among the peoples and tribes of Eastern Europe during the first half of the 10th century, it was not without difficulties. The reason was the growing activity of the Scandinavians not only among the Slavs who settled in the basin of the Dnieper, Oka and the upper Volga, but also in the lands that were the immediate hinterland of the khaganate (Black Sea region, the mouth of the Volga and the Caspian region). In addition to merchant expeditions, the Varangians organized – with great panache and range - raids of a looting nature (e.g. Prince Igor’s campaigns). It cannot be ruled out that they inuenced the nature of the relationship between the Khazars and their dependent tribes in Eastern Europe. The collapse of the Khaganate, which took place as a result of the war campaigns undertaken by Prince Sviatoslav (965, 969), may indicate a more significant (than previously assumed) internal weakening of the Khazar state. Undoubtedly, it was related to the change in the current system of political and ethnic relations in Eastern Europe, and the actions of the Kiev princes played a decisive role. Another reason was the change in the course of the existing long-distance trade routes, and thus the reduction of the influence that the Khazars obtained from their control. Despite the progress in research on the history of the khaganate, little is known about its relations with the Scandinavians settled in Eastern Europe, as well as with Slavic tribes, including those remaining outside the Khazar sphere of influence, and the consequences of the fall of Khazar domination for the region’s economy. The research conducted so far shows that the influence of the Khazars, although not confirmed in all spheres, was more intense, as evidenced by the reception of the kagan title in relation to the Ruthenian rulers in the 10th-11th centuries.
PL
Do Czech chrześcijaństwo dotarło poprzez sąsiednie Morawy oraz Bawarię, która już od końcaIX w. zaczęła odgrywać coraz znaczniejszą rolę. Jak ukazują rezultaty badań historycznychi archeologicznych aż do połowy X w. jego zasięg ograniczał się do domeny Przemyślidów(Kotlina Praska). Szerzenie się nowej religii było rezultatem działań podjętych przez WacławaI i Bolesława I. Jednak prowadzenie systematycznej i zorganizowanej pracy misyjnej byłoutrudnione przez brak wystarczającej liczby duchownych, szkół oraz własnego biskupstwa(973). Znacznie wolniej natomiast przebiegała zmiana mentalności i kształtowanie się kulturyreligijnej ludności pod wpływem oddziaływania nowej religii. W Czechach proces tenwidoczny był aż do lat czterdziestych XI w. i analogicznie jak w pozostałych krajach regionu,także zależny był od postępów w zakresie budowy organizacji państwowej. W badaniach historycznychi filologicznych zwraca się uwagę na bilingwialny charakter kultury w państwie Przemyślidów, jakkolwiek brak przekonujących dowodów potwierdzających występowanie ciągłości kulturowej i religijnej dziedzictwa cyrylometodiańskiego w Czechach. Pozycja księstwa czeskiego w realiach politycznych i kulturowych Europy wczesnego średniowiecza oraz posiadanie aż dwóch kanonizowanych członków dynastii zapewniło Przemyślidom wysoką pozycję wśród rodów panujących, które kształtowały dzieje i kulturę Europy Środkowej.
PL
The outbreak of the Saxon war was caused by Charlemagne's determination to protect Neustria and the north-western part of Austrasia against raided by Saxon tribes. The main political, church  and economic institutions of the Frankisch monarchy were also located there. The historiography of the Merovingian period (Gregory of Tours, Chronicle of Fredegar) as well as of the Carolingian one the Frankish annals, the  Annals of Metz, Liber hustoriae Francorum, Einhard) give a unanimous, disapproving presentation of the Franks. The war waged on the saxons can be divided into three stages (772-776, 777-785, 792-804). Its considered one of the two last serious conflicts which eventually ended territorial expansion of the Carolingian monarchy. The lack of success sufficient to win the Saxons already during the first stage of the war resulted in thr decission to conquerr the whole territory and to convert the Saxons from paganism to Christianity. From the beginning of the third stage of the conflict, Charlemagne subdued the Slavs living along the Elbe (the Obodrites and the Wieletes), the Frisians and the Danish who consequently, got engaged in the conflict. Living in the neighbourhood of the Carolingian monarchy did not have only a negative impact, for influencing the territory in the range of material culture and art (imitatio imperi) had the beneficial effects.
PL
Historia czasopism „Prace Historyczne” i „Studia Historica” za lata 1962–2012 oraz bibliografia zawartości
EN
The subject of the article is the policy of the Holy See during the pontificates of Nicholas I, Hadrian II and John VIII with regard to countries in Central Europe and the Balkans. It was the result of the complex relations between the papacy and the Carolingians, the Byzantine Empire as well as the Slavic states. The Moravian rulers (Rostislav and Sviatopluk) and, Boris-Michael, the Khan of Bulgaria, used the interest of the Holy Sees diplomacy in these regions to implement their own ecclesiastical and political plans. An analysis of mutual diplomatic contacts shows more interest in Boris-Michaels state in the diplomatic activity of the papacy than in the Moravian state. The change in the policy of the Holy See took place after the fiasco of making the Bulgarian state dependent on the Church, as well as with the deterioration of relations with the East Frankish monarchy (in ecclesiastical and political matters). This contributed to the growing importance of the Moravian state in the diplomatic activities of Rome in Central Europe (the Gloria in excelsis Deo papal bull).
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Preface
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