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The article presents the notion of evidence generalisations, their typology, methodological characteristics, and types of applications in non-monotonic reasoning, and threats that generalisations pose for the correctness of the actual conclusions. This part makes use of the already classical concepts of David Schum and William Twining. Moreover, the article makes an attempt at defining the role of generalisation in the latest model approaches to investigations, where their role intertwines with forensic analysis, especially with the construction of hypotheses and scenarios of the course of criminal events, and argumentation used in such cognitive procedures.
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Uncertainty is an existential phenomenon that lies in all human relations, will accompany the analysis and decisions taken in any security system. The most important and typical manifestations of uncertainty in security are: the dilemma of interpretation about motives, intentions and capabilities of other; and the dilemma of response related to the issue of how to respond to threats. The problem of uncertainty in the security systems generally is considered to be unsolvable even talk certainty of uncertainty, however, there are philosophical and empirical approaches and analytical methods for reducing uncertafinty in the course of decision-making. The paper presents the theoretical aspects of uncertainty in security systems, discusses the meaning of these dilemmas, and has potential for reducing extent of the problem
EN
The article presents the theoretical grounds for forming opinions in polygraph examinations and their practical application. Presented are the ways of constructing a polygraph expertise from the perspective of the argumentative model of evidence-based reasoning. The article also points at the ways of defending the opinion against the potential criticism from the judicial body/commissioning party. Moreover, it includes a detailed list of scientifically corroborated techniques designed for various types of examinations.
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The authors seek to answer the following questions: Does the Police need ethics? Is ethics not counter effective in the activities of the Police? Is there a relationship between how ethical the Police is, and how the society trusts it? The authors refer to the experience of the Police in Europe, and in Germany and France in particular. They present the historical and contemporary ethical context of the activity of the Police in these two countries, outlining the events that led to the adoption of the documents of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. The authors believe however that these documents are not the last stage in the debate on moral standards in European police institutions.
EN
Participants of this study consisted of a group of young persons in their last years of secondary school, as well as students studying at higher education institutions. The youth group was presented with five (fictional, but realistic) case studies, which were summarized descriptions of operational-reconnaissance activities, carried out by special and police services. The task assigned to each anonymously participating student was to submit a declaration as to the readiness to participate in the activity described, playing the role of a secret partner as well as having the ability to conduct a moral evaluation of the activities undertaken by special and police services. Overall, the readiness to participate in such activity decreased as operational risk increased, and this was independent of the significance or importance of offences which were worked out or solved by the services. On the other hand, moral evaluation depended on the subject towards which loyalties could have been violated as a result of activities carried out.
PL
Uczestnikom badań – młodzieży ostatnich klas licealnych oraz studentom – przedstawiono po pięć (fikcyjnych, ale realistycznych) historii, będących zwięzłymi opisami sytuacji, związanych z czynnościami operacyjno-rozpoznawczymi, realizowanymi przez służby policyjne i specjalne. Zadaniem badanych anonimowo osób było złożenie deklaracji co do gotowości uczestnictwa w tych czynnościach, w charakterze tajnych współpracowników, a także dokonanie moralnej oceny podejmowanych przez służby działań. Gotowość do uczestnictwa malała wraz ze wzrostem ryzyka operacji i była niezależna od wagi rozpracowywanych przestępstw, natomiast ocena moralna uzależniona była od podmiotu, wobec którego lojalność mogła zostać naruszona w wyniku czynności.
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