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„Leporis vero si novellae…”, czyli o powiązaniu medycyny i sztuki kulinarnej w "De observatione ciborum" Antimusa

100%
Rzeźnicka Z.
Vox Patrum
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2022
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vol. 81
91-110
EN
The present study scrutinizes the initial part of the recipe considering culinary preparation of hare meat (reading: „Leporis vero si novellae…”), from a Byzantine medical treatise De observatione ciborum by Anthimus (5th/6th c. AD). The first part of the article proves that the work was written in accordance with the ancient materia medica. The author emphasises the specific character of the said work, as it discusses foodstuffs typical for non-Mediterranean peoples. Moreover, she highlights that since treatise was dedicated to Theuderic, the ruler of the Franks it contains mainly information on food served at the royal court. As an example showing Theuderic's high social status a recipe for hare meat is given. In the main part of the study the author analyses the initial passage of the said formula. On the basis of Anthimus' treatise as well as medical (works by Galen [2nd/3rd c. AD], Oribasius [4th c. AD], Aetius of Amida [6th c. AD]) and culinary (a poem by Archestratos of Gela [4th c. BC], De re coquinaria [4th c. AD]) sources she proposes a reconstruction of culinary technology which might have been recommended by Anthimus in preparing the examined dish. The comparative analysis of the above source material confirms Anthimus’ competences in the field of dietetics as well as a close connection between ancient/Byzantine medicine and culinary art. Furthermore, it proves that medical treatises are useful in the research on the history of everyday life.
PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest analizie początkowego fragmentu receptury na potrawę z zająca („Leporis vero si novellae…”) zachowanej w bizantyńskim traktacie medycznym De observatione ciborum autorstwa Antimusa (V/VI w. n.e.). We wstępie autorka dowodzi, że dzieło to zostało napisane zgodnie z antyczną tradycją medyczną. Wskazuje też na jego specyfikę zaznaczając, że dotyczy ono pożywienia typowego ludów spoza obszaru basenu Morza Śródziemnego. Nadto zaznacza, że skoro traktat został dedykowany władcy Franków, Teuderykowi, zawiera on przede wszystkim dane na temat diety wyższych warstw społecznych. Jako przykład odzwierciedlający wysoki status społeczny Teuderyka autorka przytacza przepis na danie z zająca. Zasadnicza część studium obejmuje analizę początkowej części wspomnianej receptury. Autorka proponuje rekonstrukcję technologii kulinarnej, która mogła być stosowana podczas przygotowywania mięsa młodego zająca w oparciu o dane zawarte w dziele Antimusa oraz literaturze źródłowej z zakresu ars medica (pisma Galena [II/III w. n.e.], Orybazjusza [IV w. n.e.] i Aecjusza z Amidy [VI w. n.e.]) oraz ars coquinaria (praca Archestratosa z Geli [IV w. p.n.e.], traktat De re coquinaria [IV w. n.e.]). Analiza porównawcza materiału źródłowego wskazuje na kompetencje Antimusa w zakresie dietetyki, a także uwypukla zależność antycznej/bizantyńskiej medycyny i sztuki kulinarnej. Dodatkowo tekst ukazuje wartość traktatów medycznych w badaniach nad historią życia codziennego.
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Hare in Sauce According to Anthimus’ Recipe: Meat

100%
Rzeźnicka Z.
Studia Ceranea
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2022
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vol. 12
751-777
EN
The present article examines the beginning of the recipe for hare meat (leporis vero si novellae […]) preserved in Chapter 13 of the dietetic treatise De observatione ciborum written in the first half of the 6th cent. by the Byzantine physician Anthimus. In the initial part of the study, the author briefly discusses key events in the doctor’s life, explaining the circumstances which brought him to the royal court of the Frankish ruler, Theuderic. Next, the author analyses Anthimus’ competence in the field of dietetics and proves that he composed his treatise in line with ancient and Byzantine materia medica. The key part of the article scrutinises the most popular methods of preparing hare meat according to ancient gastronomical literature (Ἡδυπάθεια by Archestratus of Gela, De re coquinaria) and compares them with Anthimus’ recommendations. This allows the author to reconstruct the culinary techniques that Anthimus most probably proposed be applied in the preparation of hare meat. The author concludes that Anthimus’ treatise is a clear example of the practical application of both dietetics and materia medica in culinary practices performed in the physician’s lifetime.
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Wino, ciemierzyca i mirra albo o lekarzach i ich pacjentach. Analiza fragmentu V księgi „De materia medica” Dioskurydesa

63%
Kokoszko M., Rzeźnicka Z.
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych
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2019
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vol. 18
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issue 2
5-37
EN
The present article is based on an analysis of a passage included in book V of De materia medica by Pedanius Dioscorides, the leading authority on materia medica of the 1st c. AD. The authors, focusing on the extract devoted to therapeutic wines flavoured with hellebore, emphasise the role of selected flavouring substances in order to elaborate on the financial status of addressees of the prescriptions. This perspective allows the researchers to present not only the significance of wine in contemporary medicine but also underscore the importance of myrrh, which was a high-priced resin imported from Arabia Felix, and was highly valued owing to its exceptional flavour as well as pharmacological actions. The comparison of six selected recipes turns out to have given a valuable insight into Mediterranean society. Firstly, it shows that Dioscorides felt the obligation to treat both the poor and the rich. Secondly, it demonstrates his medical competences, proving that he was able to adjust market value of components used in his prescriptions to financial capacities of his patients. Next, it circumstantiates the commonness and popularity of medial knowledge in ancient society. Finally, it proves that medical treatises are an important source of knowledge for historians dealing with economic and social history of antiquity.
PL
Artykuł stanowi analizę fragmentu piątej księgi traktatu De materia medica spisanego w I w. n.e. przez Dioskurydesa, wybitnego znawcę substancji leczniczych. Autorzy omawiają w nim passus z rozdziału poświęconego winom o działaniu terapeutycznym z dodatkiem ciemierzycy przez pryzmat ingrediencji wykorzystywanych do aromatyzowania poszczególnych trunków. Zwracają uwagę, że dobór tych ostatnich uzależniony był nie tylko od właściwości leczniczych, lecz także od sytuacji materialnej pacjenta. Informacje te stają się punktem wyjścia do rozważań na temat roli wina w antycznej praktyce medycznej. Autorzy zauważają, że mogło być ono wzbogacane powszechnie dostępnymi dodatkami lub ingrediencjami importowanymi z odległych krain. Wśród tych ostatnich szczególną uwagę poświęcają mirrze. Dodatek tej egzotycznej i kosztownej żywicy sprawiał bowiem, że wspomniany napitek cieszył się w antyku szczególnym uznaniem zarówno ze względu na wyjątkowe walory smakowe, jak i działanie farmakologiczne. Poprzez zestawienie receptur Autorzy zwracają uwagę na kilka kwestii dotyczących społeczeństwa obszaru basenu Morza Śródziemnego w epoce antyku. Po pierwsze, ukazują przekrój społeczny pacjentów Dioskurydesa. Po drugie, obrazują kompetencje lekarza jako osoby umiejętnie dostosowującej poszczególne medykamenty do możliwości finansowych chorych. Po trzecie, uzasadniają powszechność i popularność zagadnień związanych z medycyną w ówczesnym społeczeństwie. W końcu udowadniają, że traktaty medyczne mogą stanowić cenne źródło w badaniach nad historią gospodarczą i społeczną starożytności.
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Proso w gastronomii antyku i wczesnego Bizancjum

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Rzeźnicka Z., Kokoszko M.
Vox Patrum
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2013
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vol. 59
401-419
EN
The present article deals with some culinary applications of millet in Antiquity and Byzantine period, as demonstrated in select Greek and Roman literary sources (Athenaeus of Naucratis, Pedanius Dioscurides, Galen, Oribasius, Aetius of Amida, Alexander of Tralles, Symeon Seth, Geoponica, Byzantine lexi­ca, Cato, Columella, Antimus and Apicius). The authors of the article start their analysis with presenting two kinds of millet, which ancient and Byzantine people were familiar with, namely Latin – milium, i.e. broomcorn millet, Latin – panicum, i.e. foxtail millet. Subsequently, they demonstrate suitability of the cereals for bread baking. As result, they prove that millet bread was fairly popular and appreciated, even though Greek dietitians promoted the doctrine that millet was suitable for the purpose of bread production only in the time of scarcity of other, better quality grains. Accordingly, they specify various kinds of bread and describe diverse sorts of ov­ens (furnus, furniculus) it was baked in. The authors also write about one of the ancient desserts, occasionally made of millet flour, namely about libum. Then, the authors of the article discuss Roman puls, which were two kinds of foods eaten (instead of bread) by a considerable fraction of an­cient and Byzantine society and which could also be prepared from the analyzed cereal. The discussion is exemplified with some extant recipes. Ultimately, the authors of the study refer to the evidence left by medical writers (Galen, Oribasius, Aetius of Amida, Alexander of Tralles), as they discuss soups/ gruels and beverages prepared from millet, which were said to possess some medical values (and, as the sources re­veal, were profited from mostly to cure alimentary tract disorders).
5
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Wine and Myrrh as Medicaments or a Commentary on Some Aspects of Ancient and Byzantine Mediterranean Society

63%
Rzeźnicka Z., Kokoszko M.
Studia Ceranea
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2019
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vol. 9
615-655
EN
The present study has resulted from a close reading of prescriptions for therapeutic wines inserted in book V of De materia medica by Pedanius Dioscorides, the eminent expert in materia medica of the 1st century A.D. The authors emphasise the role of wine varieties and selected flavourings (and especially of myrrh) in order to determine the social status of those to whom the formulas were addressed. This perspective gives the researchers ample opportunity for elaborating not only on the significance of wine in medical procedures but also for underscoring the importance of a number of aromatics in pharmacopoeia of antiquity and Byzantium. The analysis of seven selected formulas turns out to provide a fairly in-depth insight into Mediterranean society over a prolonged period of time, and leads the authors to draw the following conclusions. First, they suggest that medical doctors were social-inequality-conscious and that Dioscorides and his followers felt the obligation to treat both the poor and the rich. Second, they prove physicians’ expertise in materia medica, exemplifying how they were capable of adjusting market value of components used in their prescriptions to financial capacities of the patients. Third, the researchers circumstantiate the place of medical knowledge in ancient, and later on in Byzantine society. Last but not least, they demonstrate that medical treatises are an important source of knowledge, and therefore should be more often made use of by historians dealing with economic and social history of antiquity and Byzantium.
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How to Glow and Stay Fresh: Some Advice on Deodorants Penned by Aetius of Amida

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Kokoszko M., Rzeźnicka Z.
Studia Ceranea
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2022
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vol. 13
477-490
EN
As far as women’s wellbeing is concerned, ancient and Byzantine physicians took great care not only of their patients’ health sensu stricto but also of their appearance. A testimony of the approach is given, for instance, by Aetius of Amida’s (6th cent. AD) Libri medicinales, where he devotes much attention to cosmetics, including a group of deodorising antiperspirants called καταπάσματα. In our study we analyse one prescription, taken by Aetius from Criton of Heraclea’s (1st/2nd cent. AD) treatise, trying to prove that it is very informative of medical (especially pharmaceutical) theory as well as practice in the social context of the 6th century AD. In order to achieve our goal, first, we analyse ancient and Byzantine materia medica, scrutinizing the medical properties ascribed to each component of the cosmetic in the light of the theory in force between the 1st and the 6th centuries AD. Next, we determine the method of preparation of the antiperspirant, its form, the mode and place of its application. Finally, we proceed to assess its market value as a marker exposing the group of the cosmetic’s addressees. As a result, we conclude that the recipe was competently worked out on the basis of a theory commonly accepted by medical authorities, and that the preparation was designed for women (but also for men) of a high social status.
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The History of Polyarchion (πολυάρχιον), John Chrysostom’s Illness, and Access to Medicinal Treatments at the End of Late Antiquity

63%
Rzeźnicka Z., Kokoszko M.
Vox Patrum
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2024
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vol. 91
563-587
PL
Pisma Jana Chryzostoma (ok. 347 – 407) stanowią cenne dla historyków medycyny źródło informacji, dostarczając bezpośredniego wglądu w jego problemy zdrowotne i terapie, którym był poddawany. Korespondencja Jana daje nam unikalną możliwość zbadania popularności niektórych leków i dostępności opieki zdrowotnej, umożliwiając tym samym weryfikację danych zachowanych w traktatach medycznych. W niniejszym artykule przeanalizujemy stan zdrowia Chryzostoma w oparciu o jego wzmiankę dotyczącą leku zwanego polyarchion (πολυάρχιον), przesłanego arcybiskupowi przez niejaką Karterię. Na podstawie przepisów na polyarchion zachowanych w traktatach Galena i Pawła z Eginy przybliżymy główne właściwości tego medykamentu i terapie, w których był stosowany. Nakreśliwszy zakres jego działania i przeanalizowawszy dolegliwości Chryzostoma opisane w jego korespondencji z Olympias oraz w jego żywocie autorstwa Palladiusza z Galacji, ustalimy te, na które duchowny uskarżał się najczęściej. Finalnie ocenimy dostępność analizowanego leku na przełomie IV i V wieku oraz zasady włączania antycznych recept do wczesnobizantyńskich pism medycznych.
EN
John Chrysostom’s (c. 347‑407) works are valuable for medical historians because they provide us with a first-hand insight into his health problems and the therapies he was treated with. John’s correspondence gives us a unique opportunity to assess the popularity of certain drugs and the availability of healthcare, enabling us to verify the extant medical data. In the present study we will discuss the information on Chrysostom’s illness including his mention of a medicament named polyarchion (πολυάρχιον) which had been sent to the archbishop by Carteria. On the basis of the recipes preserved in medical treatises by Galen as well as other medical data, we will introduce the main properties of the medicine and treatments in which it was administered. Having outlined the scope of its action, and having analysed the symptoms of Chrysostom’s condition described in his correspondence to Olympias, we will establish the nature of the ecclesiastic’s main ailments fully. Finally, we will also conclude on the drug’s availability in the Byzantine world and on the inclusion of drug formulas in early Byzantine medical works.
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Common and Foxtail Millet in Dietetics, Culinary Art and Therapeutic Procedures of the Antiquity and Early Byzantium

51%
Kokoszko M., Jagusiak K., Rzeźnicka Z.
Łódzkie Studia Etnograficzne
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2015
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vol. 54
EN
Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and foxtail millet, also known as Italian millet (Setaria italica P. Beauv.), are among crop grasses that in the Antiquity and the early Byzantine period were grown on a relatively large scale. Yet although the sources indicate that they were among popular crops, they were neither as widespread not as highly regarded by consumers as wheat and barley. Views pertinent to the dietetic doctrine with regard to those to plants evolved before Galen’s lifetime and were very consistent, considering that they did not change over the period from the 2nd to the 7th century. This doctrine pointed to the less beneficial qualities of both these crop plants in comparison to the most highly values grains used in bread-making, especially to wheat. Also, common and foxtail millet were constantly present in the cuisine of the period in question, both being used as food in the rural areas rather than in cities. They were usually put in boiled dishes, because millet bread was unpopular owing to its brittleness and disagreeable taste. Both common and foxtail millet were included among the fármaka used in the period between the 2nd and 7th century, although they certainly were not as favoured in medicine as wheat and barley. Common millet was more often mentioned in the healing role. Both grains were used in medical procedures as components of healing diets, especially foods helpful in alleviating gastric disorders. Flour ground from common millet was applied as powder, whereas the grain itself found use as a component of warming cataplasms and poultices which usually had a drying quality. In addition, millet to was considered to be an efficacious antidote against poisons.
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Cured Meats in Ancient and Byzantine Sources: Ham, Bacon and "Tuccetum"

51%
Rzeźnicka Z., Kokoszko M., Jagusiak K.
Studia Ceranea
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2014
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vol. 4
245-259
EN
The present study discusses the role of salt-cured meat in dietetics, medicine and gastronomy demonstrated mainly in ancient and Byzantine medical (Galen, Oribasius, Aetius of Amida, Anthimus, Alexander of Tralles and Paul of Aegina) and agronomic (Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius, Geoponica) sources written between 2nd and 10th century A.D. The part dealing with culinary application was also based on De re coquinaria. The article consists of three parts. In the first one, concerning ham, there are presented places in Europe and Asia Minor, were best cured meats were produced. Next, there in an outline of different methods of salting pork, dietetic properties of this kind of food, as well as, the way of using ham in medical treatment. There are also quotations of some recipes for ham that were presented in De re coquinaria. The second, sets forth the importance of bacon in ancient and Byzantine diet and medicine, especially among inhabitants of Gaul. The authors describe also the way it was utilized in by Byzantine physicians in fighting parasites. The last part is devoted to tuccetum – a meat dish, that was only mentioned in few Latin sources and has not yet been researched in detail. Moreover there is a presentation of different ideas for translations of this Latin term given by translators, linguists and historians.
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Health and Culinary Art in Antiquity and Early Byzantium in the Light of "De re Coquinaria"

51%
Kokoszko M., Rzeźnicka Z., Jagusiak K.
Studia Ceranea
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2012
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vol. 2
145-164
EN
The article is aimed at indicating and analyzing connections existing between De re coquinaria and medicine. It is mostly based on the resources of extant Greek medical treatises written up to the 7th century A.D. As such it refers to the heritage of the Corpus Hippocraticum, Dioscurides, Galen, Oribasius, Anthimus, Aetius of Amida, Paul of Aegina, to name but the most important. The authors of the study have tried to single out from De re coquinaria those recipes which have the tightest connections with medicine. They are: a digestive called oxyporum, two varieties of dressings based on fish sauce, i.e. oxygarum digestibile and oenogarum, herbal salts (sales conditi), spiced wine (conditum paradoxum), honeyed wine (conditum melizomum viatorum), absinthe (absintium Romanum), rosehip wine (rosatum), a soup (or relish) pulmentarium, a pearl barley-based soup termed tisana vel sucus or tisana barrica, an finally nettles. In order to draw their conclusions, the authors of the article projected the data from De re coquinaria upon a wide background of extant information retrieved from medical writings. The conclusions demonstrate that those who contributed to the present form of De re coquinaria, even if they did not possess strictly medical expertise, remained under a heavy influence of Hippocratic and Galenic teachings. As a result, De re coquinaria should be seen as yet another work of antiquity that supports the existence of an indissoluble bond between medical doctrines and culinary practice of the times.
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Rice as a Foodstuff in Ancient and Byzantine "Materia Medica"

51%
Kokoszko M., Jagusiak K., Rzeźnicka Z.
Studia Ceranea
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2013
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vol. 3
47-68
EN
The present study discusses dietetic qualities of rice and culinary recipes pertaining to its preparation as demonstrated in ancient and Byzantine medical treatises compiled between 1st and 7th cent. A.D. (Dioscurides, Galen, Oribasius, Anthimus, Alexander of Tralles, Aetius of Amida and Paul of Aegina). The evidence (in the part touching on gastronomic applications of rice) also includes De re coquinaria attributed to Apicius. The article consists of three parts. The first analyzes sources and modern literature to assess the impact of rice on the Greco-Roman and Byzantine agriculture. The results of the analysis confirm the scholarly opinion that rice was never popular in the Mediterranean in the ancient and early Byzantine periods. A slow and gradual change in its status appeared along with the Arab agricultural revolution. The second chapter of the study is devoted to dietetic characterizations of rice and presents features attributed to the cereal over the ages. The authors come to the conclusion that the most frequent characteristics of the crop which appear in the analyzed sources are its indigestibility, unwholesomeness, astringency (styptic action) as well as the ability to slow down the work of the alimentary tract. The final part of the article tries to retrieve from medical and culinary writings main culinary guidelines according to which rice was prepared as food. The authors conclude that, as a rule, the cereal was not used for bread baking, though it is likely that it was utilized in making cakes. Rice usually was the basis for preparation thick, gruel-like dishes which were normally compared to chondros or poltos, less thick soups which were said to be similar to ptisane, and watery, thin concoctions called chyloi, created by diluting rice stock.
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Owies w greckich traktatach medycznych starożytności i Bizancjum (V w. prz. Chr. - XI w. po Chr.)

51%
Kokoszko M., Jagusiak K., Rzeźnicka Z.
Vox Patrum
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2013
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vol. 59
421-447
EN
The common oat (Avena sativa) is a kind of cereal which is fairly well attested in the ancient and Byzantine Greek sources. It is to be noted that medical litera­ture of the abovementioned periods is especially informative as far as the subject in question is concerned. The body of evidence shows that both in Antiquity as well as over the Byzantine period (i.e. between the Vth and the XIth centuries) oats belonged to the crops which did not enjoy much appreciation nor special attention on the part of both mass consumers as well as medical specialists. Generally the cereal was thought to be worse than other crops and therefore lending itself to being animal fodder. It was made use of almost exclusively as an emergency food in case of shortages of other cereals. Though there are very few recipes that refer directly to the ways of preparing oats as food, some guidelines can be formulated on the basis of information per­taining to other cereals. The analyzed sources appear to suggest that it was used to prepare thin soups (on the basis of oats cooking liquor). Moreover, the cereal was also cooked into gruel-like soups. Having been finely ground, it could also be utilized to prepare bread, which, however, was not highly appreciated for its taste nor dietetic value. Medical sources characterize oats in reasonable detail. The cereal is said to be not very appealing in its flavour (which reveals unbalanced humours), characteris­tic of limited wholesomeness, slightly astringent (and therefore slowing down the work of the alimentary tract), hard to digest, delicately desiccating, heating and cooling at the same time. The same material suggests that oats were used for therapeutic purposes. Mainly they were profited from to treat diarrhea, stomach problems, liver ail­ments, prepare cataplasms to stimulate diaphoresis, help remove mucus from the bronchi and feed the feverish.
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Dieta monastyczna w świetle nauki medycznej. Teodoret z Cyru i medycy o soczewicy

51%
Kokoszko M., Dybała J., Jagusiak K., Rzeźnicka Z.
Vox Patrum
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2014
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vol. 62
297-329
EN
The present article discusses one of the most important ingredients of the Syrian ascetic diet (from the beginning of the IVth to the mid Vth century) as de­scribed by Theodoret of Cyrus in his Historia religiosa, namely lentils (fakÒj). The basis of the research is constituted by ancient and byzantine medical trea­tises composed between the Ist and the VIIth centuries by Dioscurides, Galen, Oribasiusa, Aetius of Amida and Paul of Aegina. The aim of the article is to de­scribe the role of the legume and thereby opine on compatibility or incompatibil­ity of the monastic dietetic pattern with the one described by the medical doctors. First, the authors of the study try to show the importance of lentils as food across the area of the Mediterranean. Subsequently, they proceed to sketch its dietetic characteristics developed by ancient and Byzantine medical doctors and conclude that the evaluation was not fully appreciative of the foodstuff. Thirdly, the authors come to show applications of lentils in medical procedures, since both in Antiquity as well as in Byzantium the plant was considered to be a medicine. The discussion on lentils is concluded by introducing culinary uses of lentils, which abound in medical writings. The authors also note that all the preserved rec­ipes envisage the cooking of the food, i.e. a procedure which was usually avoided by the Syrian ascetics.
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Chleb nieodpowiedni dla chrześcijan: moralne zalecenia Klemensa Aleksandryjskiego w konfrontacji z naukowymi ustaleniami Galena

51%
Kokoszko M., Dybała J., Jagusiak K., Rzeźnicka Z.
Vox Patrum
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2015
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vol. 64
249-291
EN
The goal of the present discussion is to determine what kind of bread Clement of Alexandria had in mind, when, in his Paedagogus, castigated some of Alexandria inhabitants for the consumption of a kind produced form excessively purified (by sieving) flour (which due to the process was becoming devoid of any nutritional values), which, as an item of luxury, would ultimately lead its consu­mers to effeminacy. In order to identify the food and link it to the varieties produced in those times, the authors of the study have analyzed select treatises of Galen, who, being a con­temporary of Clemens, is acclaimed to have been the most eminent physician of the period between the IInd and the IIIrd centuries after Christ, and an authority in the area of bread nutritional values. Having outlined the scope of Clement’s activities and knowledge as well as having presented the corpus of data in the line left by Galen, the authors of the present study conclude, that the Christian wrote about a kind of bread baked with a generous amount of leaven (since it was the additive that made the dough rise), and consequently they identify the variety artos zymites. As for the technology of baking, they opine that the bread described by the Christin writer belonged to bread types obtained from kribanon or ipnos. The authors also opine that the crucial piece of information given by Clement allowing to identify the variety is the one concerning flour used for the purpose. They claim that, since it was presented as very well-sieved, contributing to the whiteness of the bread and consequently to its classification as luxurious, the choice is limited to two kinds of the food, namely artos katharos or plytos artos. Out of the two only the latter’s characteristics given by Galen matche Clement’s description of the bread as a foodstuff of low nu­tritional value. Consequently, the authors of the article conclude that it was plytos artos that was the bread variety alluded to in Paedagogus. Moreover, they come to the opinion that the discussion on bread show that Clement’s words included in Paedagogus show consistency with contempo­rary dietetic doctrines. Accordingly, the latter were either not absent from the Christian’s general knowledge or constructed on popular lore he shared.
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Kim jest Romajos? (Łódź, „Ceraneum”, 25-26 IV 2014)

32%
Rzeźnicka Z.
Vox Patrum
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2014
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vol. 61
674-676
PL
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