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EN
This paper is dedicated to certain models of commodity bundling, which occurs when two or more goods are offered together. The packet usually consists of one unit of each good, but it may also contain both goods in a fixed proportion. Owing to commodity bundling a seller may practise price discrimination. It takes place when the price of the packet is not equal to the sum of the goods offered separately and the difference does not represent a consequence of a change in costs levels. Hence, a definition of price discrimination by G.J. Stigler is applied. As the models analysed in the paper have different assumptions, their results are clearly divergent, and sometimes even contradictory. The decisions of the enterprise are highly dependent on whether it operates as a monopolist or is exposed to some kind of competition, e.g. oligopolistic one. The aim of the paper is not only a presentation of the models, but an attempt to arrange them according to assumptions in each of them as well. The review of literature carried out in the paper points out that currently it is hard to find any empirical research showing the application of the discussed models in the economic reality. That is why the models of commodity bundling are a solid theoretical base for interesting analyses of price discrimination in markets for various goods, also in Poland.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie nowych narzędzi z zakresu nadzoru makroostrożnościowego jako czynników pozytywnie wpływających na bezpieczeństwo w europejskim systemie bankowym. Badaniu poddano bufory kapitałowe, wprowadzone do prawodawstwa unijnego przez pakiet CRD IV/CRR, ukazano ich tło historyczne, a następnie metodą analizy porównawczej pokazano zakres ich wdrożenia w poszczególnych państwach UE. Otrzymane wyniki pozwalają na stwierdzenie, że działania nadzorcze podjęte w odniesieniu do banków o znaczeniu systemowym, mających siedzibę w UE istotnie poprawiły ich kondycję kapitałową. Przez odpowiednią kalibrację wskaźników buforów kapitałowych możliwe jest zmniejszenie ryzyka systemowego, co ma duże znaczenie z punktu widzenia działalności tych banków. Uruchomienie systemu zapobiegania upadłościom instytucji finansowych przyczynia się także do redukcji kosztów społecznych ponoszonych przez podatników.
EN
An aim of the article is to present new tools in the field of macroprudential supervision as the factors positively affecting security in the European banking system. The research covered capital buffers introduced to the EU legislation through the CRD IV/CRR package. The authors presented their historical background; then, by the method of comparative analysis, they showed the scope of implementation thereof in individual EU member states. The obtained results allow stating that supervisory measures undertaken in relation to banks of the systemic importance, with their seats in the EU, have significantly improved their capital condition. It is possible, through an adequate calibration of the indices of capital buffers, to reduce the systemic risk, what is of a great importance from the point of view of these banks’ activities. The launch of the system of preventing bankruptcies of financial institutions also contributes to reduction of social costs incurred by taxpayers.
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