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Limitations in the airspace sovereignty of states in connection with space activity

100%

Polkowska M.

Security and Defence Quarterly

2018

vol. 20

issue 3

42-56

The launch of the Soviet Sputnik in 1957 resulted in the emergence of two legal concepts concerning spacefl ight. The first of them concerned harmless passage through airspace subjected to the sovereignty of states, the second - recognition that at the height of the trajectory of a passage, space is no longer subject to the sovereignty of states (res omnium communis). In both cases, we are dealing with limiting the sovereignty of states. These issues have not been resolved to this day. The practice of spacefl ight has confirmed the freedom of spaceflight, although it has not resolved the issue of the upper limit of airspace. It is worth emphasising, however, that the decisive factor for the development of space law was the customary law that arose in 1957, because states did not protest and tacitly accepted the principle of a harmless flight.

Global Space Security and Counter-space Capabilities: the Legal and Political Challenges

100%

Polkowska M.

Adam Mickiewicz University Law Review

2019

vol. 9

101-120

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue: space security and counterspace capabilities and arms control. Those issues come under the sovereignty of each state and are strictly connected to national defense and policy. Counterspace, also known as space control, is the set of capabilities or techniques that are used to gain space superiority. Space superi-ority is the ability to use space for one`s own purposes while denying it to an adversary. These issues are so important now in the era of fast-growing state activities in space and under such a big dependence on space. Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are a subset of offensive counterspace capabilities, although the satellite itself is only one part of the system that can be attacked. That is the reason why protecting space infrastructure, in the absence of stabilized international space control cooperation and difficulties in reaching an agreement on PPWT treaty and lack of progress of international space law in this matter, is crucial by building the Space Situational Awareness system. Collaboration of states in this matter seems to be a priority.

European Space policy regarding Space security and safety and role of SSA programme

100%

Polkowska M.

Ad Astra. Program badań nad astropolityką i prawem kosmicznym

2022

issue 3

11-22

Numerous European countries, whether pursuing Space activity or not, share serious concerns as to armaments in Space. Space defence might become an important issue in the international arena because counteracting the emerging hazards will probably entail not only development of operational technologies and capacities but also formation of political alliances or attempts at determining certain “rules of conduct” concerning Space operations on the international level. European Space Situational Awareness constitutes operational monitoring and understanding of the orbital environment and the behaviours of entities being its part. Surveillance and tracking sensors (e.g. radar, optical, laser ones) acquire data on objects (active and defunct satellites, debris, fragments, Space weather and NEOs), which are processed and incorporated into the database (catalogue). Thus obtained data are aggregated and create a Space image, serving, among others, for warning operators against possible collisions of objects. At present, in Europe SSA constitutes a key operational domain.

Prawo kosmiczne. Kilka uwag tytułem wprowadzenia

100%

Polkowska M.

Ad Astra. Program badań nad astropolityką i prawem kosmicznym

2022

issue 5

54-58

The text contains some general reflections on space law – a branch of law that is currently developing very rapidly.

Komunikat zawiera kilka ogólnych refleksji na temat prawa kosmicznego - działu prawa, który się obecnie bardzo dynamicznie rozwija.

Legal and political aspects of space mining

100%

Polkowska M.

Polish Journal of Political Science

2020

vol. 6

issue 4

61-83

In recent years, there has been a great interest of states and international corporations in the problem of obtaining raw materials from celestial bodies. Space mining is a future branch of industry that does not exist yet, related to the extraction of natural resources from celestial bodies. Although we currently bring from space at most samples of material for research, serious companies have been established that deal with the development of technologies related to the extraction of raw materials. Today, space mining is treated as an inevitable and important element of the future world economy. Moreover, it is already a source of conflicts. Space mining is of interest mainly to those countries which have not been endowed by nature with deposits of rare raw materials sufficient to meet the needs and ambitions, and private entities encouraged by the scale of potential profits. The flagship example of the first type is the United States, for which the ultimate goal of the space programme is the expansion of humanity throughout the solar system; it also counts on quick and big profits. For years, the Americans have been concerned about maintaining freedom of action, e.g. by remaining outside the regime of the Moon Treaty; they even introduced in their domestic legislation preliminary regulations regarding extraterrestrial extraction and ownership of raw materials.

Space Security Policy in Japan and Poland

100%

Polkowska M.

Cybersecurity and Law

2019

vol. 2

issue 2

75-100

This article refers to the Space security legislation in Japan and Poland. Both states have already prepared some legislation on Security in Space- the question is the following- if there is still a need of progress and if those presented legislation are sufficient for the practical purposes of the peaceful uses of Outer Space. Japan is a much more experienced state in using space than Poland; the same seems with the legislation. Poland as less experienced state in this matter has lots of ambitions to create the efficient legislation on Space security, so it must follow the good examples of states and institution in this matter. One of them is Japan. On the other state, Poland as a Member of EU must implement the European law in space security (in particular SSA), which seems to be priceless and efficient for the international cooperation in Space.

Space Traffic Management (STM) – Legal Aspects

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Polkowska M.

Polish Political Science Yearbook

2021

issue 1 (50)

159-169

Space Traffic Management (STM) is a new concept referring to space activities. The highest priority is the safety and security of outer space and all conducted operations. There is no definition of STM. There is an urgent need to regulate STM providing safety and security regulations at the international, regional, and national levels. Because there is no STM definition, the regulator might use the example of existing regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization on Air Traffic Management (ATM). European EUSST is a good example of being a “precursor” of STM. However, many questions are still open regarding specific regulations needed to create an STM system, such as at which level they should be made: globally, regionally, or nationally.

Integrated Space Situational Awareness Systems: SDA and SSA – Advantages and Limitations

100%

Polkowska M.

Polish Political Science Yearbook

2021

issue 2 (50)

133-148

SDA (Space Domain Awareness) and SSA (Space Situational Awareness – SSA) have been defined as comprehensive knowledge of space objects and the ability to track, understand, and predict their future location. The purpose of the article is to present SSA initiatives to protect space systems, which are now recognized as fundamental assets of the sustainable development of each country. The destruction of even a part of the space infrastructure can have severe consequences for the security of citizens and economic activity. These systems assume the combination of all data obtained by various entities operating in space and Earth to create a common database. The SSA system was created based on the US military programme SDA (Space Domain Awareness); SSA and SDA are almost similar, but SDA is a new term replacing SSA, which existed previously. SDA is a better and improved SSA. Increasingly, the SSA programme is part of national and EU space strategies, but it is not yet possible to include it in international space law.

New space (nowa era działalności w Kosmosie) – problemy prawne i gospodarcze oraz kwestie bezpieczeństwa

100%

Polkowska M.

Roczniki Nauk Prawnych

2020

vol. 30

issue 3

137-159

There is no one definition of the term “New Space”. The term is commonly used by those involved in construction spacecraft, as well as in the creation of space law. This term may mean the evolutionary process since the era of commercialization and privatization, which was characterized by government contracts (where the government acted as tenant and purchaser of the equipment) until the commercial era, where the government and private companies purchase services from the private sector. The era of New Space as a new model of activities in space poses new challenges for: governments, new space market actors as well as lawmakers. Permanent commercialization needs to adapt existing legislation to meet current needs and challenges. There is a need for common understanding freedom of access to space and the need for its global development in the New Space era. The economic and security challenges presented in the work in space activity in New Space and related to with them, the limitations and problems show how important peaceful cooperation between states is.

New Space (nowa era działalności w Kosmosie) oznacza ewolucyjny proces od ery komercjalizacji i prywatyzacji, którą charakteryzowały kontrakty rządowe (gdzie rząd działał jako najemca i nabywca sprzętu) do ery komercyjnej, gdzie rząd i firmy prywatne nabywają usługi z sektora prywatnego. Stała komercjalizacja wymaga dostosowania istniejącego prawodawstwa do aktualnych potrzeb i wyzwań. Istnieje ponadto potrzeba wspólnego zrozumienia zasad swobody dostępu do przestrzeni kosmicznej oraz potrzeba jej globalnego rozwoju. Obowiązki nałożone w art. VI układu kosmicznego (OST) z 1967 r., dotyczące autoryzacji i stałego nadzoru, są w gestii państw. Kwestia związana z jurysdykcją staje się dotkliwa dla podmiotów prywatnych, kiedy ta wolność zostaje transponowana na poziom narodowy i prywatny. Koncepcja odpowiedzialności za działalność niezgodną z zasadami prawa międzynarodowego, w tym działalność podmiotów prywatnych, i odpowiedzialność państwa za szkody wyrządzone przez obiekty kosmiczne, w tym przez prywatnych operatorów, staje się najbardziej fundamentalną kwestią międzynarodowego prawa kosmicznego z perspektywy prywatyzacji działalności kosmicznej. Państwa są więc zmuszane do podjęcia wewnętrznych działań, do monitorowania i kontroli działalności prywatnej przedsiębiorców. Współdziałanie międzynarodowej i krajowej legislacji jest konieczne w obliczu prywatyzacji działalności kosmicznej. Państwa kontrolują prywatne przedsiębiorstwa, mają mechanizmy legislacyjne potrzebne do ustalenia reżimu licencjonowania i monitoringu oraz system sankcji. Wyzwania gospodarcze i te związane z bezpieczeństwem, przedstawione w pracach nad działalnością kosmiczną w „nowej erze działalności w kosmosie” i z nimi związane ograniczenia i problemy pokazują, jak ważna jest pokojowa współpraca między państwami.

Space Tourism Challenges

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Polkowska M.

Review of European and Comparative Law

2021

vol. 45

issue 2

153-182

Space is a new destination for tourism. Today tourists can travel the world using many different modes of transportation, including road, maritime, and air. People always want to discover new destinations. Human beings strive to break borders and go beyond - even to the stars. There are new technical and commercial challenges and innovations in reaching outer space. The new transportation business of today has already experienced many ups and downs, but definitely big projects, such as traveling to the Moon or Mars remain the purview of the perennial space powers. The Author considers what kind of challenges space tourism brings (in the commercialization era) and what kind of space governance and policy is needed to make this tourism efficient. Some comparisons referring to airspace and outer space aspects, such as managerial, organizational, and legal have been made. The basic analysis made in this article indicates that the commercial space industry seeks to be new space operators, provided that they operate in a safe and secure manner according to international rules and policies. Good strategic planning and management of space is the key.

Space Defense in Europe. Policy and Security Aspects

100%

Polkowska M.

Polish Political Science Yearbook

2020

issue 2 (49)

127-139

Today countries participating in space activities, share serious concerns about militarization of space. The defense of space can become an important issue in the international arena, because counteracting emerging threats will probably be associated not only with the development of technology and operational capabilities, but also with the creation of political alliances or attempts at international agreement on certain “rules of the game” for space operations. Ultimately, the growing importance of “space for defense” creates the need for “defense of space”. Individual countries remain the main actors in the field of space defense. Military strategies are defined at national level, and the development and exploitation of military space assets are managed by national organizations. Today, most European countries recognize space as a strategic area, next to land, sea, air and, increasingly, cyberspace, but they have adopted different policies and doctrines depending on their sensitivity, priorities and concerns. European space forces also have different governance structures with significant differences in the distribution of roles and responsibilities, including space agencies and private entities.

Ochrona światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i jej znaczenie podczas konfliktów zbrojnych

100%

Polkowska M.

Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska, sectio F – Historia

2023

vol. 78

155-170

The article is part of the topic related to the protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage. This protection became the subject of a nationwide scientific conference organized in Poznań on June 20, 2022, titled: “The role of international organizations in the protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage. Reflections on the 50th anniversary of adopting the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage”. The author deals with the issues of civil and military protection of cultural property in the event of an armed conflict. Hence, the article refers to the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the Protocol amending it. This subject is also relevant today in the context of the ongoing war in Ukraine. The article also deals with the subject of diplomacy as a tool for creating regulations securing cultural property against destruction and describes the role of international organizations taking up this challenge. Finally, it presents the role of Poland and other countries involved in the process of saving cultural goods in the fighting Ukraine.

Niniejszy artykuł wpisuje się w tematykę dotyczącą ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego. Ochrona ta stała się przedmiotem ogólnopolskiej konferencji naukowej zorganizowanej w Poznaniu 20 czerwca 2022 roku pt. „Rola organizacji międzynarodowych w ochronie światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego. Refleksje na tle jubileuszu 50-lecia przyjęcia Konwencji UNESCO o ochronie światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego”. Autorka porusza zagadnienia cywilno-wojskowej ochrony dóbr kultury w razie konfliktu zbrojnego. Stąd w artykule odniesiono się do Konwencji haskiej z 1954 roku na temat ochrony dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego i Protokołu ją zmieniającego. Tematyka ta zyskuje na aktualności również dzisiaj w kontekście trwającej wojny w Ukrainie. Ponadto podjęta została tematyka dyplomacji jako narzędzia służącego do tworzenia regulacji zabezpieczających dobra kultury przed zniszczeniem oraz opisano rolę organizacji międzynarodowych podejmujących to wyzwanie. Wreszcie przedstawiono rolę Polski i innych państw zaangażowanych w proces ratowania dóbr kultury w walczącej Ukrainie.

International security and outer space – today’s law challenges

100%

Polkowska M.

Studia Iuridica

2023

vol. 97

126-142

Space security means safe and permanent access to space and limiting threats coming from there. This definition also includes the security aspects of man-made devices sent into space and of ground stations. Space infrastructure can be described as a network of space and ground systems connected by communication channels and allowing access to space. Today, the largest space powers have begun to consider space as an operational domain of warfare. Space more and more often appears to be a field for competition, which might become an arena of conflict. The aim of this article is to present today’s many law challenges to the security of space infrastructure, such as unintentional threats (space debris, geomagnetic and solar storms, and other random disturbances), intentional threats (ASAT anti-satellite weapons, malicious interference, and cyber-attacks), the growing problems of Earth orbit congestion, and the increasing amount of space debris from devices launched into space. The article also presents the role of international organizations (such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer space) in making laws that are intended to observe and react to all changes necessary in the outer space environment and to be proactive to help outer space to be safe and secure for all mankind. The conclusion is, however, not optimistic. Space security is a sensitive issue, mainly during conflicts or wars. States are not inclined to bind themselves by international law in this matter. Thus, due to the absence of hard international law (treaties), bilateral and multilateral agreements as well as the best practices from countries that organize space flights must apply. Space monitoring systems, such as the Situational Awareness System (SSA), the code of conduct in space, the UN Long Term Sustainability, or the space Traffic Management rules are legal tools to manage the above challenges in space today.

Long Term Sustainability (LTS) of Outer Space Activities vis a vis Space Awareness

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Polkowska M.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

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2019
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vol. 12
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issue 2
275-293

PL

Świadomość dotycząca przestrzeni kosmicznej jest jednym z priorytetów wszystkich operacji w przestrzeni kosmicznej. Przestrzeń kosmiczna jest miejscem dla działalności handlowej i wojskowej. Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy świadomości na temat przestrzeni kosmicznej w kontekście cywilnym i wojskowym. Świadomość jest tematem jednej z wytycznych przyjętych przez COPUOS w czerwcu tego roku. Dla NATO domena świadomości kosmicznej (SSA) zawsze miała kluczowe znaczenie (pamiętając, że NATO nie jest właścicielem żadnego satelity i zależy od państw członkowskich w tym obszarze), dlatego też w swoich działaniach NATO poświęciło tak wiele uwagi działalności kosmicznej i spowodowała włączenie przestrzeni kosmicznej do podstawowych zadań NATO (traktując je, jako priorytet). Współpraca cywilno-wojskowa wydaje się niekwestionowana. Lepsze wykorzystanie jednostek naukowych i technologicznych, wspieranie komunikacji z przemysłem i odpowiednimi partnerami – to dzisiejsze wyzwania dla polityki świadomości kosmicznej. Należy uznać, że państwa i międzynarodowe organizacje międzyrządowe (cywilne lub wojskowe), przedstawione w nowo przyjętej przez ONZ LTS, powinny zwiększyć świadomość społeczną w zakresie ważnych korzyści społecznych wynikających z działań w przestrzeni kosmicznej i konieczności wzmocnienia długoterminowego zrównoważenia działań w przestrzeni kosmicznej.

EN

Space Awareness is one of the priorities for all operations in outer space. Space is the place for commercial and military activities. This article is about awareness of space in civilian and military context. Awareness is the topic of one of the guidelines adopted by COPUOS in June this year. For NATO Space Awareness domain (and also SSA) has been always crucial (keeping in mind that NATO does not own any satellite and depend on member states in this area), that is the reason why NATO put so much attention to space in its activities. Policy on Space support in operations made integration of Space into NATO’s core tasks as the priority. Civil and military cooperation seems to be unquestionable. Better leverage science and technology entities, foster communication with industry and relevant partners are the challenges for space awareness policy today. It must be agreed that States and international intergovernmental organizations (civil or military) as it was presented in the newly adopted by UN-LTS, should raise general public awareness of the important societal benefits of space activities and of the consequent importance of enhancing the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

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Safety and Security law: Space Situational Awareness System (SSA) in Transatlantic Relations. Europe vis a vis the US

100%

Polkowska M.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

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2018
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vol. 11
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issue 2
329-346

PL

Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy bardzo delikatnej kwestii, takiej jak bezpieczeństwo kosmiczne i jego pilnej potrzeby wdrożenia do prawa krajowego. Istnieje szereg wyzwań dla bezpieczeństwa infrastruktury kosmicznej, takich jak niezamierzone zagrożenia (śmieci kosmiczne), zagrożenia celowe (broń kosmiczna, umyślne zakłócenia, ataki cybernetyczne) lub zagrożenia związane z pogodą w przestrzeni kosmicznej (burze geomagnetyczne, burze słoneczne, itp.). Z drugiej strony, rośnie zależność od przestrzeni kosmicznej niektórych państw, w tym państw europejskich. Istnieje zatem pilna potrzeba przyspieszenia prac nad bezpieczeństwem i współpracą międzynarodową, np. między Europą a USA – „liderem kosmicznym”. Współpraca transatlantycka w dziedzinie prawa bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego ma kluczowe znaczenie. Stany Zjednoczone posiadają niezbędną wiedzę w swojej długiej historii w zakresie tworzenia strategii kosmicznej, polityki i prawa bezpieczeństwa i mogą być dobrym przykładem dla Europy w budowaniu struktur bezpieczeństwa w Kosmosie.

EN

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue such as space security and its implementation urgency into national law. There are a number of challenges to the security of space infrastructure, such as unintentional threats (space debris), intentional threats (space weapons, malicious interference, cyber-attacks) or threats related to the weather in space (geomagnetic storms, solar storms, etc.) Space is increasingly congested and various prevention and protection measures need to be implemented. On the other hand, there is a growing dependence on the space of some countries, including European ones. There is therefore an urgent need to speed up this work on security and international cooperation, e.g. between the European Union and the US – the “space leader”. The transatlantic cooperation between European states and the US is crucial in the area or space security. The US has necessary knowledge in its long history of experience of making space strategy, policy and security law and may be a good example for Europe in building the safety and security structures in space.

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Odpowiedzialność za zanieczyszczenie przestrzeni kosmicznej

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Polkowska M., Toumi M.
Biuletyn Stowarzyszenia Absolwentów i Przyjaciół Wydziału Prawa Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego

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2023
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vol. 18
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issue 20 (2)
235-254

EN

The legacy of over 50 years of spaceflight has brought not only technical developments and scientific and achievements, but it has also led to a growing population of space debris. There are many sources of space pollution: abandoned equipment such as launch vehicle upper stages or satellites that have been abandoned at the end of their life, items from spacecraft released during mission operations (typically these items include launch vehicle fairings, split screws, cable ties, lens hoods and caps). Various shapes and sizes of debris are also produced by equipment degradation due to gases, solar radiation, as well as the operation of solid rocket engines. Examples of such products are paint flakes, alumina particles from exhaust gases and solid engine coating residues. The international community is making efforts to reduce the danger posed by the spread of space debris caused by state and private entities involved in the exploitation of space.

PL

Dziedzictwo ponad 50 lat lotów kosmicznych przyniosło nie tylko rozwój techniczny i naukowy oraz osiągnięcia, ale doprowadziło również do rosnącej populacji śmieci kosmicznych. Źródeł kosmicznych zanieczyszczeń jest wiele: porzucony sprzęt, taki jak górne stopnie rakiet nośnych lub satelity, które zostały porzucone pod koniec ich eksploatacji, przedmioty ze statków kosmicznych uwalniane w trakcie operacji misyjnych (zazwyczaj te elementy obejmują owiewki pojazdu startowego, śruby rozdzielające, opaski zaciskowe, osłony i pokrywy obiektywu). Różne kształty i rozmiary gruzu powstają również w wyniku degradacji sprzętu, działania gazów, promieniowania słonecznego, a także działania silników rakietowych na paliwo stałe. Przykładami takich produktów są płatki farby, cząstki tlenku glinu ze spalin i stałe pozostałości pokrycia silnika. Społeczność międzynarodowa podejmuje starania, aby zmniejszyć niebezpieczeństwo płynące z rozpowszechnienia się szczątków kosmicznych spowodowanych przez podmioty państwowe i prywatne zajmujące się eksploatacją Kosmosu.

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Prawo, prywatyzacja i bezpieczeństwo – szczególne wyzwania nowej ery kosmicznej (NewSpace)

63%

Polkowska M., Toumi M.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

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2020
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vol. 13
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issue 2
435-450

EN

The term “NewSpace” refers to the recent commercialization of the space sector. Today, one of the fastest growing industries is the space industry. Adapting solutions created for the purposes of space exploration or Earth observation allows for the introduction of innovations in already known technologies and the creation of solutions that revolutionize the economy. Satellite technology affects virtually every area of life. Cooperation between science and business is experiencing its “golden age.” Technologies developed for the space sector also offer great opportunities for the development of the industry. The law is not keeping up with this “space revolution.” The concept of responsibility for activities inconsistent with the rules of international law, including the activities of private entities, and the responsibility of the state for damage caused by space objects, including private operators, is becoming a fundamental problem of international space law. While, in principle, any space technology can have dual uses – civil-military, this article, by definition, does not address the issues related to the militarization of space.

PL

Termin „NewSpace” – „nowa przestrzeń” odnosi się do niedawnej komercjalizacji sektora kosmicznego. Dzisiaj jedną z najszybciej rozwijających się gałęzi przemysłu jest przemysł kosmiczny. Adaptowanie rozwiązań tworzonych na potrzeby eksploracji Kosmosu, czy obserwacji Ziemi pozwala na wprowadzanie innowacji w znanych już technologiach i tworzenie rozwiązań, które rewolucjonizują gospodarkę. Technologia satelitarna dotyka praktycznie każdej dziedziny życia. Współpraca nauki i biznesu przeżywa swoją „złotą erę”. Technologie opracowywane dla sektora kosmicznego, to również ogromne szanse dla rozwoju przemysłu. Za tą „kosmiczną rewolucją” nie nadążają przepisy prawa. Koncepcja odpowiedzialności za działalność niezgodną z zasadami prawa międzynarodowego, w tym działalność podmiotów prywatnych, i odpowiedzialność państwa za szkody wyrządzone przez obiekty kosmiczne, w tym przez prywatnych operatorów, staje się fundamentalnym problemem międzynarodowego prawa kosmicznego. Choć w zasadzie każda technologia kosmiczna może mieć podwójne zastosowanie – cywilno-wojskowe, w niniejszym artykule, z założenia – nie poruszono kwestii związanych z militaryzacją Kosmosu.

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Legal Foundations of Space Security

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Polkowska M., Toumi M.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

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2023
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vol. 16
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issue 2
309-327

EN

The advancement of space technology in recent times and the diplomatic efforts by the countries involved in space exploration indicate that conflicts in space are still possible. It is important to note that conflicts on Earth can have adverse effects in space, thereby jeopardizing security for all countries. Securing safe and sustainable access to space and preventing space hazards are crucial components of space security and safety. Maintaining the principle of peaceful use of space has become increasingly challenging today. Hence, greater attention is being devoted to the issue of space security and the corresponding international regulations. This article presents some global-level programs and initiatives, such as disarmament programs, PAROS and UN Long Term Sustainability.

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The Space Objects Re-Entry – Status and Challenges of International Regulatory Framework

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Polkowska M., Chimicz A.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

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2021
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vol. 14
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issue 1
315-327

EN

The basis of the international space regulatory framework relied on the United Nations Outer Space Treaty 1967. The purpose of the paper is to present and assess the current regulatory and legal framework with regards to space security re-entry risks. The particular regulation related to space debris and re-entry may be inferred from the basic international space law (UN space treaties). As surviving fragments originating from a particular space object (usually linked to the owner) may endanger people on the ground or operating aircraft, they are directly linked to the Liability Convention 1971. Therefore nations, international intergovernmental organizations, executive agencies, and non-governmental entities maintain their efforts to create and implement hard and soft laws. Those regulations concern the space environment and its challenges, such as the proliferation of space debris, the increasing activity of space operations, the emergence of mega constellations, and its effects on re-entry characteristics. The entire material included in this article comes from dedicated conferences and seminars about Space security and policy, legal documentation, and literature review, which refer to re-entry in this subject. The research methods used in this article have comparative and analytical nature – based of the different sources of legislation.

20

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Transformation of the Security System of Civil Airports in Terms of the Amendment of the Aviation Law

63%

Polkowska M., Urban M.
Teka Komisji Prawniczej

|
2025
|
vol. 18
|
issue 1
313-324

EN

Civil airports are an important piece of critical infrastructure but are constantly vulnerable to acts of unlawful interference. Therefore, since the beginning of the development of aviation, they have been the subject of increased concern throughout the international aviation community. This is reflected in the regulations on civil aviation activities and their protection developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the European Union (EU). Poland has adopted all the regulations on civil aviation, including airport security, enacted by these two organizations. This was reflected in the amendment of the Polish Aviation Law. The purpose of this article is to present the changes in the responsibility for conducting security checks under the Aviation Law. The introduced changes in the civil aviation security system in the Republic of Poland, including the system of civil airport security, have not reduced the state of security. Nevertheless, it should be noted that each security service in the face of the same threat, differently assesses the need for security, which may result in different actions. This makes it all the more important to constantly monitor the relevant aviation authority and services overseeing the work of private security companies.

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Transformation of the Security System of Civil Airports in Terms of the Amendment of the Aviation Law