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EN
Using court records of the village of Krowodrze, the article recreates the fate of an inhabitant of this village, Franciszka Kramarz. In 1763, she was accused, tried, and sentenced. Because she did not give her husband any offspring, he showed his displeasure by blaming her for this fact. Franciszka stole a two-week-old baby from Krakow's Holy Spirit Hospital, brought it home, and pretended to have given birth to it. A woman who used to take care of those during childbirth and the puerperium, carried the infant to the church, where it was baptised. The priest did not know that it had already been baptised at the hospital. When the caretakers at the hospital discovered what Franciszka Kramarz had done, they found her and demanded that she hand over the baby. At this point, everything came to light and the case was dealt with by the commune head and jurors. After examining the case, Franciszka Kramarz was sentenced to six months of cuchhaus, flogging, and a fine. She was also ordered to sell her farm in Krowodrze and probably move out of the village. The entries in the court book, parish books, and studies have made it possible to reconstruct a fragment of Franciszka's life and show the reasons for her behaviour.
PL
Artykuł, wykorzystując zapiski z ksiąg sądowych wsi Krowodrza, odtwarza losy mieszkanki tej wsi Franciszki Kramarzowej. W 1763 r. została ona oskarżona, osądzona i skazana. Ponieważ nie dała mężowi potomstwa, okazywał on jej niezadowolenie, winiąc ją za ten fakt. Kobieta ukradła dwutygodniowe dziecko z krakowskiego szpitala Św. Ducha, przyniosła je do domu i udawała, że je urodziła. Sprowadzona do niej kobieta zajmująca się niewiastami podczas porodu i połogu zaniosła niemowlę do kościoła, gdzie zostało ochrzczone. Nie wiedział, że ochrzczono je już w szpitalu. Kiedy opiekunki w szpitalu odkryły to, co zrobiła Kramarzowa, odnalazły ją i zażądały oddania dziecka. W tym momencie wszystko się wydało i sprawą zajął się urząd wójtowsko-ławniczy. Po rozpatrzeniu sprawy Franciszka Kramarzowa została skazana na pół roku cuchhausu, chłostę, grzywnę. Miała również sprzedać swoje gospodarstwo w Krowodrzy i zapewne wynieść się ze wsi. Zapisy w księdze, wpisy w księgach parafialnych oraz opracowania pozwoliły na odtworzenie fragmentu życia Franciszki i ukazanie przyczyn jej postępowania.
EN
“Émile, in other words – about upbringing”, the work by J.J. Rousseau published in 1762 was read relatively soon in Poland, and for a long time in French. We can see traces of “Emil” both in the memoirs of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, as well as in novels. Among the former, particularly interesting are the memoirs of women – Henrieta z Działyńskich Błędowska and Wiridianna Fiszerowa. They describe the upbringing practices of their childhood and also how they brought up their own children. By analyzing these memories one can see that the attitude towards Rousseau’s concept of upbringing was different: some have used his recommendations, and others criticized them. In the second group of sources one should mention the works of Ignacy Krasicki, Dymitr Michał Krajewski, or Fryderyk Skarbek, in which there are also references to upbringing and the human model described in the work of Rousseau.
EN
The issues of a child and childhood in the Polish territories have been neglected by historians for a long time. One of the reasons for this situation was the lack of appropriate sources for such studies. On one hand, the sources for analysing the history of childhood are relatively scarce; on the other hand, the sources that exist do not often provide much information. Thus, in order to reconstruct the functioning of a child in those times a researcher must confront numerous sources concerning various aspects of town life. The sources include the legal sources (statutes, constitutions) as well as court, iconographic, school, personal/private, statistical, archeological and material sources. Their diversity and informative value depends on the size and wealth of a particular town. Bigger and more affluent cities produced more sources but they also did more for children, especially those who found themselves in a difficult situation – abandoned, orphaned or harmed.
EN
The article presents the world of objects intended for children on the basis of varied and mutually complementary sources, including texts (pedagogical treatises, diaries, inventories), iconography and items from museum collections. Despite extensive research, information on objects functioning in children’s space has turned out to be scarce and fragmentary. Most data concern upper class children; very little is known about children from the lowest social strata. The objects discussed in the article are divided into several groups. The first one is connected with sleeping; it includes cradles for babies (trough-shaped, rocking and suspended cradles), beds for older children (which were shared with other children or adults) bedclothes and bed linen (eiderdowns, quilts, bed sheets, pillows, bolsters). The second group is connected with sitting – these are various seats for children of different age (including “running stools”, whose modern counterparts are baby walkers). The third group is connected with feeding and hygiene, including washing vessels (bathtubs, bowls and pourers), towels, chamber pots, combs, prototypes of contemporary baby’s bottles, spouts, bowls and spoons. Many of the items described in the article can be found in paintings showing the birth of Mary (a cradle, washing vessels), the Holy Family (a cradle, a comb), the Adoration of the Baby Jesus (beds and bed linen), the Virgin with the Child (a bottle, bowls, spoons), as well as in votive paintings (beds, cradles). The final part of the article discusses special rooms for children. In some social spheres they appeared in the 18th c. but in wider circles only in the 19th c. Before that time, children, even of highest social classes, shared rooms with adults, often with servants, sometimes with their nannies, nursemaids or governesses. A closer look at the objects that surround children and facilitate their development reveals that those most useful have been known for centuries; some were invented in the antiquity. Cradles, beds, walkers and all kinds of feeding vessels are also used nowadays. After the decades of using plastic, now they are again often made of natural materials, so also in this respect they resemble their counterparts from centuries ago.
EN
In the past, the child functioned, like nowadays, mainly in and around their home – in the backyard, the nearby meadow, the road, the street or the square. According to various sources however, for many centuries, children did not probably have their own rooms, dedicated only to their needs. Sometimes, in the richest of families, there were special playrooms or rooms for learning, in which the children lived with the adults who looked after them. Most frequently, however, children spent time, slept, studied and played in common rooms. The custom of giving over a room for children in houses only became popular in the nineteenth century, and then only in certain situations.
EN
In the Dillingen academy records there are two letters written in 1623 recommending to the rector's care Nicholas and Francis, sons of Mikołaj Daniłowicz. The author of the first is the boys' father, the second is a Jesuit, Mikołaj Łęczycki. They became the basis for reflections on the foreign education of the gentry, specifically the education of the Daniłowicz family. The family reached its peak of importance in the second half of the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, when they belonged to the elite of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Daniłowiczs completed their education outside the borders of the Commonwealth. Because of their religion, they chose Jesuit centres - Ingolstadt, Dillingen, Louvain; they also travelled to Italy. The letters contain requests to the rector to take care of the young men and instructions on what they should learn and how to deal with them. Translations of the letters are included at the end.
PL
W metryce akademii w Dillingen wpisano w 1623 r. dwa listy polecające opiece rektora Mikołaja i Franciszka, synów Mikołaja Daniłowicza. Autorem pierwszego jest ojciec chłopców, drugiego jezuita Mikołaj Łęczycki. Stały się one podstawą do rozważań o zagranicznej edukacji szlacheckiej, konkretnie o nauce Daniłowiczów. Szczyt znaczenia tej rodziny przypadł na 2 połowę XVI i 1 połowę XVII w., kiedy należeli do elity państwa polsko-litewskiego. Daniłowiczowie uzupełniali edukację poza granicami Rzeczypospolitej. Z racji wyznania wybierali ośrodki jezuickie – Ingolstadt, Dillingen, Lowanium, jeździli także do Włoch. Listy zawierają prośby do rektora o opiekę nad młodzieńcami oraz wskazówki, czego powinni się uczyć i jak należy z nimi postępować. Na końcu zamieszczone są tłumaczenia listów.
EN
Krzysztof Radziwiłł’s instructions on education include an indication that his son, the prince, should not go to a school abroad but rather study at home. When got older he would acquire basic knowledge and would be ready to leave. The source contains considerations on how to organize teaching, the curriculum and where to recruit the teachers.
PL
Gdańskie Gimnazjum Akademickie, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 2008: t. 1. Szkice z dziejów, pod red. E. Kotarskiego, s. 419; t. 2. Wybór źródeł z XVI i XVII wieku, red. L. Mokrzeckiego, 323 s.; t. 3. Wybór źródeł od XVI do XVIII wieku, red. Z. Nowak, 560 s.; t. 4. W progach Muz i Minerwy, red. Z. Głombiowska, 261 s.; t. 5 (Gdańsk 2011) Źródła i artykuły, red. L. Mokrzecki i M. Brodnicki, 225 s.
PL
CEL NAUKOWY: Celem artykułu jest zaprezentowanie tradycji rodzinnych pisania instrukcji dla dzieci wysyłanych do szkół poza miejsce zamieszkania lub w podróże edukacyjne.PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Przeprowadzone badania miały na celu znalezienie odpowiedzi na pytanie, jakie typy wskazówek były udzielane w instrukcjach wychowawczych, co miały one na celu i kto je redagował. Analizie poddano wybrane instrukcje powstałe w takich rodzinach, jak np. Radziwiłłowie, Sobiescy, Lubomirscy, Jabłonowscy czy Rzewuscy.PROCES WYWODU: Edukacja w epoce nowożytnej wiązała się najczęściej z koniecznością opuszczenia rodzinnego domu, w związku z tym rodzice wyposażali swe dzieci we wskazówki, mające ukierunkować i uporządkować ich pobyt w obcym miejscu i środowisku. Najczęściej były to ustne wytyczne, rady, zakazy i nakazy. Niekiedy wskazówki zamieszczano w testamentach, udzielano ich w listach, wreszcie spisywano w formie odrębnych zaleceń kierowanych do młodych ludzi lub ich opiekunów. Wyróżnić można dwa rodzaje takich wskazówek. Pierwszy rodzaj to wskazówki wychowawcze natury moralno-obyczajowej, czasami społeczno-politycznej. Drugi rodzaj to instrukcje podróżne.WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Zachowane instrukcje wskazują, że rodzice podchodzili do wychowania z odpowiedzialnością, zdając sobie sprawę z jednej strony ze znaczenia podróży edukacyjnych w kształtowaniu młodego człowieka, z drugiej natomiast z niebezpieczeństw, jakie niosło oddalenie od rodzinnego domu i pozbawienie rodzicielskiej opieki. Instrukcje były najczęściej pisane przez ojców, rzadziej przez matki. W spisywaniu wskazówek edukacyjnych ważną rolę odgrywała rodzinna tradycja wysyłania dzieci, głównie synów, do szkół krajowych i zagranicznych, a także w podróże edukacyjne. Zwyczaj pisania instrukcji nie był wyłączną domeną Polski. Rodzinne tradycje spisywania instrukcji zaobserwować można m.in. u naszych najbliższych sąsiadów, na ziemiach czeskich i austriackich.WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Instrukcja jako popularny gatunek piśmiennictwa pedagogicznego w XVII i XVIII w., mając charakter praktyczny, stanowiła ważne narzędzie wychowawcze w dyspozycji rodziców stanu szlacheckiego.
EN
Study of Polish People from Crown and Lithuania in Jesuit Wurzburg
PL
Polacy z Korony i Litwy na studiach w jezuickim Wiirzburgu (1582- 1630)
PL
Nauki pedagogiczne w Polsce. Tradycje - współczesność - przyszłość. Materiały z konferencji, red. S. Michalski, R. Ossowski, Bydgoszcz 1994, Wydawnictwo WSP, ss. 561
PL
“How to Educate Youth so that They will later become Servants of the Church of God”. Referring to Education in the Homes of Ministers and the Ordained in the Synods of The Unity of the Brethren in Greater PolandThe article discusses the preparation of the clergy of The Unity of the Brethren in Greater Poland. The best way of education was considered to be the tuition of boys in the homes of ministers and high ranking citizens. It was regarded as far more important than a school education. This method was recommended, with regard to the customs in force in the country, by the elders of the Brethren, who took adolescents into their homes to educate them. The ways in which to shape the future clergy was advised by the synods. Guidance in this area was developed by Szymon Turnowski, who adapted Jan Blahoslava’s tractate to Polish conditions. Acolytes, deacons and ministers were also ordained at the synods. The academic requirements for the clergy were high and for this reason, despite their own interventions, the sect was often lacking in ministers. The struggle of educating the clergy was one of the most serious problems faced by the Brethren.
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PL
Świat biskupa Jana Lubrańskiego
PL
Kazimierz Puchowski, Jezuickie kolegia szlacheckie Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. Studium z dziejów edukacji elit, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 2007, ss. 636
PL
“The Toys Were Plentiful”. Children’s Toys in Polish Lands during the Middle Ages and the Modern EraChildren have been playing since time immemorial, with pebbles, sticks and fruit as their first playthings. In time games involved specially prepared objects. Different cultures and periods feature similar toys due to certain regularities of a child’s development and similarities governing the progress of societies. Children’s toys from the past can be divided into several groups taking into consideration such criteria as the child’s age and gender and the function of the given toy. The first group thus includes toys associated with infancy and early childhood, such as rattles. The slightly older child played with spinning wheels and pin wheels. At the consecutive stage toys differed depending on the child’s gender and future duties, with the youngsters imitating the observed occupations and behaviour of the adults. Girls “assuming” the roles of grown women had “girlish” toys preparing them for maternity – they played with dolls, which fulfilled the function of children, and the games of future housewives involved miniature cooking utensils and furniture as well as doll houses. Since masculine occupations were much more numerous and varied boys had their disposal miniature tools preparing them for assorted professional roles and crafts (boats, wagons). The most popular boys’ toys were connected with the military occupations of grown men – weapons, toy soldiers, and hobby horses. Children also played with religious objects while imitating priests officiating at funerals, celebrating Holy Mass, etc. With the passage of time, the development of civilisation, growing specialisations and the rise of new professions the range of toys increased and became diversified.
EN
The Polish National Exhibition (PWK) in Poznań was organized in 1929 on the tenth anniversary of Poland regaining independence with the intention to show the achievements of the Polish state in all areas and industries. It attracted 1,427 exhibitors, including representatives of the toy industry. However, it was stressed that the PWK showed the achievements of the Polish toy industry and the possibilities of this branch of Polish industry.
EN
Hieronim Baliński’s treatise on upbringing a noble boy, written in 1598, commissioned by Jan Łączyński for his son Kasper, has been used in literature for a long time. It is among the best known educational instructions the Old Polish period. Providing his guidance, Baliński showed exemplary education of a nobility boy. Baliński divided it into stages, taking into account the most important elements: religious and moral, physical and mental education. He also showed how to deal with a child and not discourage him from learning. In his opinion, religious education was of greatest importance as it was necessary for a young child to know God, His goodness, patience, mercy and love of human beings. The first stage of education was home schooling after which Baliński recommended a country school, followed by a trip abroad. A boy should take his first trip to Germany at the age of 12 and stay abroad for 2–3 years. According to Baliński, it was a prelude to the main journey which was to take place after a short stay at home. During the break, a young nobleman should be acquainted with the local law, operations of the court and the Parliament. Around the age of fifteen, a young man with a guardian appointed by his father should go abroad once again, this time to Italy, to develop his education and skills. Upon return from the trip, the young man continued education by transition to the adult life. Baliński recommended a court chancellery and military service. In the treatise he points out how a boy should behave towards other people; he also raised issues related to child nutrition and clothing. What is more, Baliński provided tips on physical development and exercises appropriate for children. The major source of Baliński’s treatise was religious literature although he probably referred to Quintilian’s and Mikołaj Rej’s works. According to his own account, Baliński drew on his experience and numerous conversations. The ideal man, as presented by him, bears resemblance to Rej’s faithful and mediocre “kind-hearted man”.
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