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EN
The study takes up the issues of research and development activities in the econo-my. In the paper the following assertion has been verified: despite the increase in expen-ditures on R&D in Poland comparing to increasing investments in the developed econo-mies, it is not sufficient to compensate the existing gap in innovation between Poland and these countries. The study drew attention to the size and structure of expenditures on research and development in the developed countries and Poland. In the paper there was also an assessment of R&D activities undertaken by the public sector in Poland presen¬ted, as well as the state and the general causes of low or insufficient research and deve¬lopment activities in the Polish economy.
PL
W artykule podjęto tematykę bezpieczeństwa energetycznego UE. W tym kontekście zostanie przedstawiona struktura przedmiotowa i podmiotowa importu nośników energii, ogólna sytuacja geopolityczna związana z dostawami energii oraz podstawowa strategia bezpieczeństwa energetycznego realizowana w ramach UE. Mimo tego, że ogólny poziom bezpieczeństwa energetycznego Unii Europejskiej pozostaje na poziomie akceptowalnym, odmiennie przedstawia się sytuacja w poszczególnych krajach, w tym szczególnie jest ona niekorzystna w krajach Europy Centralnej i Środkowo--Wschodniej.
EN
The paper presents the subject of the EU energy security. In this context the import structure of energy carriers will be discussed (both in subjective and objective grasp), as well as the overall geopolitical situation related to the energy supply, and the basic energy security strategy implemented within the EU. Despite the fact that the overall level of energy security of the European Union remains at an acceptable level, the situation is different in individual countries. It is particularly unfavorable in the countries of Central Europe and Central Eastern Europe.
PL
Rola instytucji w rozwoju i funkcjonowaniu całej gospodarki jest jednym z najciekawszych obszarów badawczych nowej ekonomii instytucjonalnej. W nurcie tym kryterium minimalizacji kosztów transakcyjnych zostało wykorzystane zarówno do analizy życia gospodarczego, jak i wszelkich innych instytucji społecznych. Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie problematyki występowania kosztów transakcyjnych oraz znaczenia uwarunkowań instytucjonalnych rynków i działalności gospodarczej. W tym kontekście zarysowano problem powstawania i zmiany ram instytucjonalnych oraz wskazano na złożoność i specyfikę tego procesu.
EN
The role of institutions in the development and functioning of the entire economy is one of the most interesting areas of research of the new institutional economics. In this mainstream, the criterion of minimising transaction costs has been used both for the analysis of economic life, as well as all other social institutions. The article examines transaction costs, the institutions underlying the new institutional economics and the importance of institutional conditions in the form of a complete and effective institutional system. In this context, it outlines the problem of the formation and changes in the institutional framework and points to the complexity and specificity of this process.
EN
The aim of the paper is to present risks, challenges and directions for further changes relating to the Polish energy security in the global and regional environment. The phenomena associated with the concept of climate changes, global technology race and increasing resource dependencies is presented. There is taken also an attempt to link these issues in the context of rapidly changing geopolitical dependencies, both with presentation of the consequences of these threats. The paper likewise submits the issues of energy security, the risks associated with the energy security of the European Union and the basic assumptions that underlie the EU's energy security policy.
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