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William Randal Cremer (1828-1908): od syndykalizmu do pacyfizmu. Szkic biograficzny

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki I. H.
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Historica
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2001
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vol. 70
PL
Wydanie publikacji dofinansowane przez Komitet Badań Naukowych
EN
The article presents the ideas and political activities of William Randal Cremer: an English worker and trade-unionist. The development of his political career was connected with the political struggle to democratize the British Constitution and to achieve peaceful state of international ralations in the second half of the 19th century. Cremer was one of the makers of the British trade-unionism in the 50’s of the century after the fall of the Chartist movement. He was in favour of solving the workers’ problems by means of trade-union’s peaceful mediation between the workers and their employers. In the 60’s Cremer and the British trade-unionism were engaged in the political action conducted by the Reform League (together with the radical wing of the Liberal Party) to introduce the next Reform Bill in the British Constitution and to create possibility for the British workers to sit in Parliament. At the same time Cremer participated in the formation and activity of the International Working Men’s Association but being a reformist he withdrew his support when the Association was taken over by revolutionary thinkers. Cremer didn’t also appreciate the political power of the working British mass risen in the 90’s: the new trade-unionism and the Independent Labour Party. For at reason when he had an occasion to sit in Parliament (thanks to the Reform Bill in 1885) as „Lib.-Lab.” he became a representative of radical liberals but not socialists. He was not involved in any of the British workers’ problems at the time. Cremer in Parliament and also in the various peace organisations (e.g. International Arbitration League), however, paid a lot of attention to advance his belief that peace was only acceptable state for manking and arbitration the method by which it could be achieved in international relations. As a result of his peaceful activities he became a laureate of the Peace Noble Prize in 1903. The idea of arbitration proved to be very important Cremer’s contribution to the world peace movement despite many tragic was experiences in the 20th century.
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Idea tolerancji religijnej w poglądach i doświadczeniach politycznych Williama Penna (1644-1718)

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki I. H.
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Historica
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1999
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vol. 64
EN
An idea of the liberty of conscience was one of the most important problems of the modern history. William Penn’s contribution to the development and the realization of the idea in the second period of the 17th century is the subject of the article. William Penn was the English gentleman, the member of the Quaker sect - one of the most radical and spiritual group of nonconformists in England - and the founder of Pennsylvania in the North America. Penn’s opinion on the liberty of conscience was the most significant element of his natural theory of state and laws presented in over 50 treatises and pamphletes. His considerations were concerned with the evangelical principles of Quakers and other protestant and spiritual sects. On the other hand, Penn’s idea was based on the political philosophy and the historical, juridical and economic arguments had belonged to the Christian intelectual tradition and the modern European liberal and rational thought. Penn used the idea of the liberty of conscience for defending Quakers and other dissenters in England as well as on the Old Continent (e.g. in Poland) in the age of the Later Stuarts. He wrote many petitions, letters and bills presented to the kings, the parliaments, the Privy Council and to the magistrates of London and other towns. He also profited from the help and the support of many influential courtiers. Moreover Penn and other Quakers took part in the whig political action during the Exclusion Crisis to make real the religious tolerance in England. The failure of these Quaker activities induced Penn, thanks to Charles II the proprietor of Pennsylvania, to found the ideal state of peace, so called Holy Experiment, in the North America. The idea of the liberty of conscience to all the people which believed in God was one of the constitutional laws organizing the public life of the province. About twenty years later when the political expieriences in Pennsylvania showed the necessity of change of the Holy Experiment the principle of the liberty of conscience, however, remained as the lasting element of the constitutional laws and one of the great source of the demographic progress and the wealth of the American colony. Penn’s acting on behalf of nonconformists and on the religious tolerance in England was limited by his belonging to Quakers, the different political aims of his Whig supporters, his principles of faith and in general by the attitude of the court, the parliaments and other public institutions towards the sect. But Penn made a success in Pennsylvania where he had as the founder the considerable contribution to the realization of the liberty of conscience. The late American social and political thought was influenced in significant degree by the principle and the practice of the religious tolerance adopted in the 17th century in the Quaker colony and guaranteed in Penn’s constitutions.
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Projekt ładu europejskiego Williama Penna z 1693 r.

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Robak P.
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Historica
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1995
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vol. 53
PL
Wydanie publikacji dofinansowane przez Komitet Badań Naukowych
EN
An Essay Towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe is a small political treatise published anonymously in London in 1693 when England was embroiled with France in the War of the League of Augsburg. William Penn (1644-1718), the author of this essay, was the English aristocrat, the member of the Quaker common named „Society of Friends” - one of the most radical puritan sect, and the founder of Pennsylvania in the North America. Penn proposed in his treatise to make real of the European League or the Imperial States as a way to establish a permanent peace on the Continent. He drew the plan of the Imperial or General Parliment of nations with the function of arbitration to solve the contentions or disputes between the states-signatories of the League. Penn considered that this international assembly will be gather in the appointed place and time and make decisions in the secret ballot. The sources of Penn’s project were in existing in the 17th century the European and American representative institutions, the earlier union propositions, the modern political philosophy and the Quaker pacifist ideas. Penn’s conceptions joined the proclamation of peace and justice in the international relations with the federal and parlimentary principles. However the solution was too much radical to find any reverberation on the European absolutist courts in the end of the 17th century. On the contrary, the most important meaning of An Eisay... is in the evolution of the Quaker pacifism from the evangelical and spiritual views to the humanitarian and rational argumentation (integrational pacifism).
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Amerykańskie doświadczenia Williama Penna. Projekt współpracy kolonii z 1697 r.

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki I. H.
Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Historica
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1996
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vol. 57
FR
La plus grande partie d’expériences de William Penn (1644-1718), Anglais et gentleman et membre de la secte non-conformiste de quakers était due à l’initiative de rendre réelle sa vision de l’état idéal fondé sur le territoire vierge de l’Amerique du Nord. Le fondateur de la Pensylvanie tâchait d'organiser les colons installés autour de la baie de Delaware (quakers pour la plupart des cas) en société qui aurait mis en oeuvre les principes de la paix et de la tolérance et laquelle aurait respecté le pouvoir suprême de la couronne et les droits du propriété de la province. Le conflit du fondateur avec les colons, la disgrâce du roi face à Penn après l’intronisation de Guillaume III et la nécessité de la participation de la Pensylvanie au système de la défense coloniale durant la guerre avec la France de la Ligue d’Augsbourg (l’Angleterre y appartenait aussi), marquèrent fort „la Sainte Expérience” et obligèrent Penn à chercher et sauvegarder la propriété d’outre mer. La solution aurait du venir du projet élaboré par Penn et se basant sur la coopération des colonnies. Elles se seraient regroupées sous forme de fédération tout en respectant les tendences autonomiques des provinces nordaméricaines (le Congrès) et la politique centraliste d’outre mer de la Couronne (le Commissaire royal). Le projet en question ne fut pas réalisé mais l’idée de compromis constituait un élément important de l’évolution du pacifisme des Quakers (guerre justifiée pour le défense). La nouvelle Constitution „offerte” par son fondateur à la Pensylvanie datant de 1701 couronnait les expériences américaines de William Penn et d’une manière symbolique mettait fin à l’Expérience sainte vis à vis de cette colonie.
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Aleksandra Dmowska, Marynarka wojenna Francji w XVII wieku. Colbert i francuskie Dominium Maris, Wydawnictwo Aspra, Warszawa 2011, ss. 266

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki K. H. N.
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych
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2012
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vol. 11
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issue 2
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Angielski handel zewnętrzny (i kolonialny) w latach 1715–1740. Amerykanizacja rynku pozauropejskiego

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki W. F.-H.
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych
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2013
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vol. 12
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issue 2
EN
The article is focused on the presentation of the main directions of a growth of English foreign (and colonial) trade in the peacetime period in the international relationals in the Atlantic sphere between 1715–1740. The English overseas statistics (especially based on the collected data by E.B. Schumpeter) have indicated that in the described period was the continuance of a growth of English foreign trade (so called in a historical literature „trade revolution”) which had the beginning in the second half of the XVIIth century. The trade was marked by a superiority of the traditional European markets (especially in the Northern Atlantic countries) with a positive balance but much more dynamic was the growth of English Extraeuropean trade (essentially the colonial trade) in so called the Atlantic sphere of English economy. The main role in the latter played the American market (from Canada to some Carraibean Isles) with some share of the Iberoamerican markets. The part of Atlantic English trade dominated the whole English Extraeuropean trade (so called by some historians the Americanisation of English trade). The latter, however, was an unprofitable with some exception of the Western African trade but thanks to the steady increase of the role of overseas imports (especially many colonial products) in the English European re-eksport the whole English foreign trade had a regular positive balance in the described period. The Americanisation of English Extraeuropaen trade made the main level of British-French colonial rivalry (with an important share of Spanish colonies in the both Americas) in the first half of the XVIIIth century. The rivalry brought to an end the peacetime period in the Atlantic sphere when the breaking out of British-Spanish colonial war united a farther growth of English foreign trade with the war of Empire (1739–1740).
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William Penn a dylematy małżeństwa kwakrów w Anglii, w XVII wieku: wiara, procedury i doświadczenia życiowe

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Robak P., Łódzki U.
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych
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2004
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vol. 3
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issue 1
EN
William Penn (1644-1718) as one of reformers of Christianity and one of Quaker leaders refered to a dilemma of Quaker marriages in his religious activities and his private life. The dilemma concerned the theological interpretation of marriage and the procedures of wedding. These issues made part of a larger process of the transformation of marriage institution in modem England. especially in the XVII-th century. The Quaker theology of marriage included in some pali the puritan thought of wedding and the spiritual and the apocalyptic faith announced the revival of Christianity. Penn shared the convictions but thanks to his religious knowledge he put forward in his Right Marriage. etc. the need of spiritual love and the suitable selection of partners as a source of later "Visible Harmony" of spouses. At the same time Pen n took part in some central Quaker meetins where he worked out with other leaders of "Society of Friends" the procedures of marriage ceremony to his coreligionists. The activity of the meetings was indispensable to make legal and allowed by the state the Quaker weddings but on the other hand it caused many quarrels in the Quaker community in the second half of the XVII-th century. Penn also presented his attitude towards the Quaker marriage ceremony in his experiences. He got married twice. Penn in his choice of bride passed from the ideal of "Visible Harmony" to controversial decision to his co-religionists but he made his vows according to the Quaker marriage procedures.
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Angielski handel zewnętrzny (i kolonialny) w dobie wojny o imperium (1740–1765)

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Robak P., Uniwersytet Łódzki W. F.-H.
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych
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2016
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vol. 15
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issue 1
PL
Artykuł prezentuje rozwój angielskiego handlu zewnętrznego (i kolonialnego) w okresie dwóch kontynentalnych konfliktów zbrojnych, toczonych także na morzach i w koloniach, w które zaangażowana była Wielka Brytania w latach 1739–1763. Zaprezentowana analiza tego handlu została oparta na szacunkowych danych statystycznych za lata 1740–1765 (stąd ramy chronologiczne artykułu) i przeprowadzona w odniesieniu do dwóch głównych obszarów multilateralnej wymiany: europejskiej i oceanicznej, w tym kolonialnej. Z poczynionych przez Autora ustaleń wynika, że rynki europejskie utrzymały dominującą pozycję w angielskim handlu zewnętrznym w omawianym okresie, choć rozwijały się w sposób zróżnicowany regionalnie i w ogólnym dodatnim bilansie mniej dynamicznie niż na rynkach zamorskich (i kolonialnych). Te bowiem, rozłożone na obszarach: atlantyckim i azjatyckim, odnotowały istotny wzrost wartości i wielkości wymiany, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do rynków amerykańskich (Ameryka Północna i Indie Zachodnie), mimo że w ogólnym bilansie zachowały stały charakter deficytowy. Jednakże oceaniczny (i kolonialny) import decydował w dużej mierze o rosnącym europejskim reeksporcie angielskiego handlu zewnętrznego, pozwalając mu utrzymać stały dodatni bilans handlowy we wspomnianych latach. Na powyższe zróżnicowanie wielkości i dynamiki rozwoju angielskiego handlu zewnętrznego miały oczywisty, choć nie wyłączny, wpływ toczące się długotrwałe zmagania wojenne. Na niektórych rynkach europejskich (zwłaszcza euroatlantyckim i lewantyńskim) przyniosły one widoczny regres obrotów, natomiast w sferze pozaeuropejskiej okazały się często czynnikiem sprzyjającym intensyfikacji wymiany handlowej, co niewątpliwie było efektem brytyjskiej dominacji zbrojnej na morzach i w koloniach. Ta sytuacja ukształtowała w pewnej mierze przekonanie brytyjskich merkantylistów i polityków, głównie od lat pięćdziesiątych XVIII w., że wojna służy rozwojowi angielskiego handlu zamorskiego.
EN
The process of Americanisation of overseas trade formed the main ground of colonial rivalries of European states, especially Great Britain and France, in the Atlantic sphere in the first half of the 18th century. This competition caused the series of colonial and naval wars which were connected with European conflicts in the period from 1740 to 1763. Great Britain took active part in these military events in Europe and in overseas spheres termed in a literature as the struggle for Empire. The article presented the main directions of a growth of English foreign (and colonial) trade during this stormy period. The English overseas trade statistics (generally based on the collected but approximated date by E. B. Schumpeter) have indicated that in the described years was continued the growth of English foreign trade, especially rapidly from the half of the 18th century what is termed in the contemporary historical literature as a second phase of so called „trade revolution”. This foreign trade was characterized by a dominated position of four traditional European markets with a whole positive balance in all the time. The Northern- Western market (from Germany to Atlantic coast) possessed the biggest and profitable share in this trade but in general scale it was stagnated. On the other hand the trade in the Baltic sphere had a dynamic growth though unprofitable (as a result of a great share of import from Russia). The English trade in Levant was in a deep stagnation though it marked a growth in different periods in the commercial exchange with Iberian and Italian states. The English Extraeuropean trade, however, had a much more dynamic growth than on European markets, though lower in a volume of value and unprofitable in a full scale of its commercial exchange. The main role in this trade played American markets (from Canada to some Caribbean Isles) with some share of Iberoamerican markets in different periods. This part of so called Atlantic economy of England dominated over the whole English Extraeuropean trade. In this Atlantic economy also two markets were profitable: North American and African as important export/reexport spheres, especially for English manufacture goods. Thanks to the great share of overseas import (colonial products) in the English reexport to European markets the whole English foreign trade had the regular positive balance in the described period. The participation of Great Britain in the mentioned struggle for Empire had many effects to the English foreign (and colonial) trade. These ones were more visibles in Europe than in overseas spheres, in different years, especially during the Seven Years War, with an additional share of political events and a new economic policy (prohibited tarifs) of some states. In contrast to situation in Europe, however, this struggle for Empire conducted at seas and in colonies, in spite of temporary fluctations, encouraged the growth of English overseas trade and brought new colonial markets confirmed by the peace treaty in 1763.
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