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1
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Czynniki kształtowania relacji polsko-tajwańskich

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Mencel M. T.
Studia Gdańskie. Wizje i rzeczywistość
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2015
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vol. 12
379-397
EN
The contemporary relations of Poland and Taiwan are a consequence of the European Union's policy towards this country. The policy is being constructed under the pressure of the US doctrine of "inhibition" of China, which is now the most important economic partner of Taiwan and its most important political partner. Invariably, since 1949, the Beijing's desire for political incorporation of the island is balanced by the US policy in the Asia – Pacific region, whose importance is increasing with the expansion of the economic and military power in the region, especially of the Republic of China. In the creation of a new political governance, the importance of the European Union was considered low, mainly because of the lack of a coherent foreign policy and negligible importance of this institution in the military dimension. Therefore, the conclusion that if the development of cooperation of Poland with the Republic of China on Taiwan depends mainly on the state of the EU – PRC – Taiwan relations, the latter results mainly from the relations and the level of consequence of the seizure of power in Taiwan in January 2016 by the camp of supporters of Taiwan independence. In the case of an open conflict between Beijing and Taipei, its implications will affect international relations on a global scale and the most important since World War II changes in the international environment.
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Xi Jinping, Zarządzanie Chinami, t. I, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Foreign Languages Press, Toruń 2019, ss. 572

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Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2020
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vol. 18
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issue 18
307-314
3
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Chiny – formowanie centrum kulturowo-cywilizacyjnego Dalekiego Wschodu Część I

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Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2022
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vol. 20
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issue 20
50-87
PL
Celem niniejszej pracy jest przedstawienie procesów formowania Chin jako centralnego ośrodka kulturowo-cywilizacyjnego Dalekiego Wschodu. Zauważa się ich znaczenie w obszarze relacji człowieka i społeczeństwa wobec środowiska, w którym dokonywały się najważniejsze przeobrażenia kulturowo-cywilizacyjne, a także wpływ relacji ze światem zewnętrznym i czynniki oddziałujące na kształtowanie pierwszych formacji kulturowych. Przestrzeń badawczą pierwszej części pracy wypełnia także analiza zjawisk zachodzących w procesie rozwoju chińskiego rolnictwa oraz formowania kultów, wierzeń i obrzędów religijnych – istotnych elementów kształtowania odrębności kulturowo-cywilizacyjnej Chin.
EN
The paper aims at presenting the processes of forming China as the cultural and civilisation centre of the Far East. It is important, which is noticed, in the area of human and social relations towards the environment in which the most important cultural and civilisational transformations occur. In addition, the influence of relations with the outside world and factors influencing the formation of the first cultural formations are observed. The research space of the first part of the paper also involves the analysis of phenomena occurring in the process of the development of Chinese agriculture and the formation of cults, beliefs and religious rituals – important elements of shaping the cultural and civilisation distinctiveness of China.
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Cywilizacja chińska vs. cywilizacja europejska na przestrzeni XVI–XVII wieku: determinanty polityczne i gospodarcze

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Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2021
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vol. 19
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issue 19
159-178
EN
T he basic determinant of the distinctiveness of individual civilizations is the environment. From this perspective, fundamental differences arise between Chinese and European civilization. By indicating the environment as the basic factor of civilization development, we understand not only the geographical environment, but also the environment as a geopolitical space in which relations, dependencies, connections and competitiveness are shaped, shaping the international environment and international relations at particular levels of civilization development. Until European countries undertook the work of exploring unknown areas of the Earth, the political world was divided into spheres of influence of great civilizations, the level of development of which did not differ much from any of them. Europe took over much of its cultural and scientific heritage from Islam, just as Muslim societies had for centuries earlier incorporated from China through trade, conquest and settlement.
PL
Podstawowym wyznacznikiem odrębności poszczególnych cywilizacji jest środowisko. Z tej perspektywy wynikają zasadnicze różnice pomiędzy cywilizacją chińską i europejską. Wskazując środowisko jako podstawowy czynnik rozwoju cywilizacyjnego, rozumiemy nie tylko środowisko geograficzne, ale także środowisko jako przestrzeń geopolityczna, w której kształtują się relacje, zależności, powiązania i konkurencyjność, kształtujące na poszczególnych poziomach rozwoju cywilizacyjnego środowisko międzynarodowe i międzynarodowe stosunki. Do czasu podjęcia przez państwa europejskie dzieła eksploracji nieznanych obszarów Ziemi, świat polityczny podzielony był na strefy wpływów wielkich cywilizacji, których poziom rozwoju nie wyróżniał zdecydowanie żadnej z nich. Europa znaczną część swego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naukowego przejęła od islamu, podobnie jak społeczeństwa muzułmańskie przez całe wieki wcześniej inkorporowały z Chin, poprzez wymianę handlową, podboje i osiedlenia.
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Piotr Mickiewicz, Mariusz Zieliński, Alicja Żukowska, Rosyjska wizja supermocarstwa energetycznego (super-petrostate) w XXI wieku, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2019, ss. 280

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Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2021
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vol. 19
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issue 19
275-278
6
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Nomadowie w przestrzeni mongolskiej

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Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2015
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vol. 13
174-192
EN
Since the down of time, the Mongolian space has been fulfilled with the nomadic people activity, the reality of whom was generally focused on breeding pigs and the nomadic activity of many tribes. Boundaries of their expansion were set by natural conditions and, to much extent, Chinese agriculture that was better developed. Cultural differences and the internal market that was limited to products of animal origin, forced nomads to trade with Chinese settled farmers. Self-assessment of their own higher culture resulted in frequent acts of aggression that mainly aimed at seizing craft products of the settled people by force. It was also an attempt to politically subordinate them and impose tributary relations upon them. China – a country with huge territorial range – was undertaking fight to protect its peripheral population, generally without taking any military activities against nomads outside the territory of its own country, the borders of which has never been recognized by nomads as lines indicating the range of their own activity. These groups of nomads that managed to establish their own bodies that had characteristic of a country and that were able to influence the northern regions of China more strongly, were split as a result of the reaction of China and in times of their weakness, they underwent the process of assimilation or/and sinicization by taking over a model of socio-political organization of the much more developed Chinese civilization.
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Ogniwa umacniania imperium mongolskiego w XII i XIII wieku

100%
Mencel M. T.
Studia Orientalne
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2016
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issue 1(9)
100-132
RU
В данной статье предпринята попытка определить основные факторы, объясняющие формирование монгольской государственности во времена правления Чингисхана и наиболее важные военные кампании, им организованные, а также наиболее важные достижения с цивилизационной точки зрения. Отмечается значительные изменения социальной системы и отход от родоплеменных общественных отношений чтоб построить государство с централизованной системой власти, с иерархической системой общественных отношений. Важное значение в построении учреждений монгольского государства имеет создание его организационных основ на военной модели и эффективной администрации уровня управления как центрального, так и локального. Кроме того, следует отметить, что важными факторами в формировании государства была толерантность и открытость на влияния различных религий, а также систематизация правил налогообложения, торговли и финансового оборота, а также адаптация и распространение грамотности.
EN
This article constitutes an attempt to indicate main determinants that shaped Mongolian statehood during reigns of Genghis Khan and the most important war campaigns that he organized, as well as the most important achievements from the point of view of the civilization. There can be noticed changes in the social system and abandonment of social family-tribal based relations for the benefit of developing a country with a centralized system of authority, hierarchized system of social relations. A significant meaning in the development of the Mongolian country institution is sought in setting its organizational foundations on the military model and efficient administration of the central and local levels. Furthermore, it is noticed that the important factors for creating the country were tolerance and openness to influences of various religions and systematizing tax, trade and financial transactions rules, as well as adaptation and promotion of writing.
8
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Przywódcy polityczni: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De – przestrzeń współpracy i rywalizacji

100%
Mencel M. T.
Cywilizacja i Polityka
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2016
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vol. 14
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issue 14
345-377
EN
This lecture includes an attempt to answer the question: what the connection of Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Zhu De was, and what conditions contributed to the fact that both Zhou Enlai and Zhu De did not share the fate of the political opponents of Mao Zedong, inter alia Liu Shaoqi, Wang Ming, Gao Gang and others. Recognizing the political reality of China of the period from the creation of the CPC to the death of the heroes, the synthetic approach shows their resumes, and an attempt was taken to involve the most important facts to answer the questions, inter alia about civil, war of national liberation, domestic and foreign policy of China implemented in accordance with the provisions of the Communist Party of China and the role of the heroes in shaping the cultural and civilisation order after the declaration of the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.
9
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Komunistyczna Partia Chin – od XVIII Zjazdu KPCh do decyzji III i IV Plenum KC KPCh w najważniejszych obszarach polityki wewnętrznej państwa

100%
Mencel M. T.
Studia Gdańskie. Wizje i rzeczywistość
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2014
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vol. 11
207-224
EN
From autumn of 2012 until spring of 2013 the process of assuming power by the fifth generation of Chinese communists had place. At the same time, according to expectations, successive leaders were taking over all of the most important functions in the Communist Party of China and consequently in the state apparatus. From this moment significant events that had place in CPC and that had a fundamental power of influence on the Chinese reality were decisions undertaken during sessions of the 3rd and 4th Plenum of the CC CPC that, together with decisions of the Session of CPC, constitute the subject of analysis of this work. The most important areas of the interior policy of the CPC were presented and in particular issues of the commonly present corruption of the state apparatus and military in China. An attempt to characterize Chin Hu Jintao, the outgoing leader and his successor, Xi Jinping a was made.
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Historyczne wyznaczniki polityki Chin wobec regionu Pacyfiku Zachodniego: Zhongguo, huaqiao

100%
Mencel M. T.
Studia Gdańskie. Wizje i rzeczywistość
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2016
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vol. 13
317-338
EN
The considerations on determinants of Chinese activity to areas of the western Pa-cific revealed the presence of relevant factors, i.e. historical conditions and, in particular, sinocentric ideology of China and the policy of China to the diaspora, living in areas of Southeast Asia for a number of years. The sinocentric concept of the place and role of China in the international environment involved the dominant role of China, and the secondary role was attributed to other nations. In accordance with this dogma, formal relations with China require recognition of their sovereignty. At the same time, disobedience is considered the violation of the established order and the rejection of “the will of the heavens”. Sinocentrism also inspired the idea of designating the main place for Chinese Han nationality, whose interests are strongly identified with the in-terests of all citizens, and the phenomenon of social integration involves mainly assimi-lation, which is a tool to expand and strengthen Chinese sovereignty. If the assimilation process failed, China involved the solutions based on force. Such a solution should be expected towards the most important areas of the western Pacific, and, in particular, the East China Sea and the South China Sea.
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Ekspansja mongolska w Azji Wschodniej po śmierci Czyngis-chana. Uwarunkowania i konsekwencje

100%
Mencel M. T.
Studia Gdańskie. Wizje i rzeczywistość
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2016
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vol. 13
291-315
EN
In the period after the death of Genghis Khan, Mongolia continued to rapidly ex-pand the Empire, also towards the east and the west, covering the great sites of the Chinese Song State. However, the Mongols were not able to keep power in the region, and after approx. 100 years, they were deprived of the land by consolidated movements, which were the basis of another Chinese ruling dynasty – Ming. During the reign of the Mongols in China, social and economic stagnation occurred, and the invaders’ activity resulted mainly in decreasing the manufacturing potential achieved by previous leaders of the Tang and Song dynasty. The Mongols developed international trade and allowed to occur other religions on the managed areas, so that the Chinese civilization advances could be taken over by the European civilization, contributing to development progress. However, the fall of the Yuan dynasty was only a matter of time. Internal conflict of interest between the Genghis dynasties, a huge area of the Empire and the variety of cultural and civilization of peoples residing within its borders contributed to tensions, exploding the creation of the Red Turbans. The nomadic culture of the Mongols was not able to adapt standards to enable management of the population, which adopted a settled lifestyle.
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