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EN
The article examines the preconditions, the main stages and the process of evolution of Affirmative Action in the United States. Affirmative action is a set of laws, policies, guidelines, and administrative practices intended to correct any form of discrimination. These include government-mandated, government-sanctioned and voluntary private programs that tend to focus on access to education and employment, granting special consideration to historically excluded groups based on race, such as African Americans. Affirmative Action idea was developed by American intellectuals, public figures and politicians during the twentieth century. The article also analyzes government documents that have become the basis of a new approach to US policy on racial issues. The idea of Affirmative action policies first emerged from debates over non-discrimination policies in the 1940s and during the Civil Rights Movement. These debates led to federal executive orders requiring nondiscrimination in the employment policies of some government agencies and contractors in the 1940s and onward, and to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited racial discrimination. So, Affirmative action policy for African Americans in the US arose in the 1960s as a result of the movement of the black people for their rights. To overcome racial problems the United States Government was forced to introduce completely new course which aimed to prohibit discrimination against African Americans. The article analyzes various approaches to Affirmative action towards African Americans. The complexity, controversy and versatility of racial relationships in the United States led to the active scientific and social debate about such a policy. Opponents of Affirmative action argue that these policies amount to reverse discrimination which entails favoring one group over another basing on racial preference rather than achievement, and many believe that the diversity of current American society suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no longer required. In particular, policies adopting racial quotas or gender quotas have been criticized as a form of reverse discrimination.
EN
BRCA genetic mutation leads to an increased susceptibility to breast and / or ovarian cancer in the life cycle. Research suggests that African American women use genetic counseling for BRCA less often than White Women. The aim of the review of research work presented in the article is to describe opportunities and barriers present in genetic counseling offered to black women, African-Americans and Latinos. After verification, 16 studies conducted in the years 2012–2019 were subjected to analysis, in which African American, English and Non-English Latin American or mixed samples were tested with partial analysis carried out among African American and / or Latin American Women.
PL
The author became interested in the body of the texts analyzed in this article during her research on variants and versions of the Flying Africans myth in 20th century culture and literature. In the US the main folkloric source of this narrative is an account of oral folklore collected in Georgia from African-Americans, published in 1940 as a part of Federal’s Writer’s Project. The book, entitled Drums and Shadows. Survival Studies Among the Georgia Coastal Negroes directed by Mary Granger, contains interviews with people many of whom had been born in slavery. African Americans interviewed in the project speak widely about talismans, spirits, lucky and unlucky omens and actions, as well as other aspects of their culture and folklore, including a significant amount of flight-related narratives. The dialect in the interviews is transcribed phonetically and difficult for a non-English native speaker, nevertheless the concept of ‘conjuring’ grabs the attention of the reader. This short study is an introduction to a broader analysis of the conceptual domain of ‘conjuring’ in the GWP interviews. The author uses the conceptual metaphor theory in order to establish how magic and witchcraft are conceptualized by the Georgia Writer’s Project speakers.
PL
Pod pojęciem k o n f l i k t n a t l e r a s o w y m należy rozumieć wszystkie rodzaje konfliktów występujących pomiędzy grupami etnicznymi tworzącymi pluralistyczną strukturę państwa. Są to spory istniejące pomiędzy zmarginalizowaną mniejszością a uprzywilejowaną większością, napięcia powstające pomiędzy różnymi grupami konkurującymi o władzę, zasoby i przestrzeń oraz konflikty pomiędzy grupami imigranckimi a ludnością miejscową. Artykuł stanowi próbę odpowiedzi na następujący problem badawczy: W jaki sposób konflikty wewnętrzne w Stanach Zjednoczonych, które bez względu na swoje podłoże oraz przyczyny nabierają cech wewnątrzpaństwowego konfliktu etnicznego, były i są inspirowane oraz wykorzystywane przez Rosję i jej służby wywiadowcze.
EN
The concept of racial conflict should be understood as all types of conflicts between ethnic groups that make up the pluralist structure of the state. These are the disputes that exist between marginalized minority and privileged majority, tensions arising between various groups competing for power, resources and space as well as conflicts between immigrant groups and the local population. The article is an attempt to answer the following research problem: how the internal conflicts in the United States which, regardless of their background and causes, acquire the features of an intra-state ethnic conflict, were and are inspired and used by Russia and its intelligence services.
EN
It is not without reason that the Civil War is considered to be a turning point in US history. One of them was the mass participation of African Americans, who, for the first time since the War of Independence, were allowed to serve in the army (total ca.180,000). Even though many U.S. Colored Troops were not frontal units, nevertheless some of them did actively participate in military operations. As a consequence an issue of black prisoners of war occurred. Obviously, in this case, they had to be captured by Southern troops first. Unfortunately, much oftener, there were instances of mistreatment or even brutal slaughter of POWs from U.S. Colored Troops (i.e. Olustee – Feb. 20, 1864; Plymouth – April 20, 1864, etc.). Did such behavior of Confederate soldiers fit in in wide definition of war atrocities, understood as a will to take revenge at enemy’s troops, which plunder mother country, to avenge your family and friends, killed by the enemy, etc. Or it is a much deeper problem, having its conditioning in the culture of the South, whose ideological foundation was existence of so called Herrenvolk democracy, deeply rooted belief about superiority of white race over black (known also in the North), which was reflected not only in speeches of Southern, and later Confederate, politicians but also in the Constitution of the Confederate States of America.
PL
Wojna secesyjna nie bez powodu jest uważana za przełomowy konflikt w historii USA. Jednym z takich powodów jest masowy udział Afroamerykanów, którzy po raz pierwszy od czasów wojny o niepodległość Stanów Zjednoczonych mogli służyć w armii (łącznie ok. 180 tys.). Choć wiele oddziałów U.S. Colored Troops nie było jednostkami frontowymi, to jednak część wojsk kolorowych brała czynny udział w operacjach wojskowych. Konsekwencją tego faktu było zaistnienie kwestii czarnoskórych jeńców. Oczywiście w tym wypadku warunkiem koniecznym było wzięcie ich do niewoli przez oddziały Południa. Niestety znacznie częściej zdarzały się przypadki znęcania się czy wręcz bestialskiego mordowania jeńców z U.S. Colored Troops (np. Olustee – 20 lutego 1864 r., Plymouth – 20 kwietnia 1864 r. itp.). Czy takie zachowanie żołnierzy konfederackich mieściło się w szeroko pojętych okrucieństwach wojny, rozumianych jako chęć wzięcia odwetu na oddziałach wroga, który plądruje ojczystą ziemię, chęć pomszczenia bliskich lub przyjaciół, którzy zginęli od kul przeciwnika itd. Czy jest to problem głębszy, mający swoje uwarunkowania w kulturze Południa, którego podstawą ideową było istnienie tzw. demokracji panów (Herrenvolk democracy), głęboko zakorzenione przekonanie o wyższości rasy białej nad czarną (nieobce także na Północy), które znalazło swoje odzwierciedlenie nie tylko w przemowach polityków Południa, a później Skonfederowanych Stanów Ameryki, ale także w konstytucji tego kraju.
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