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PL
The subject of the first part of the article is an interpretation of Franz Werfel’s novel Forty days of Musa Dah, published in 1933 and containing in its the name of the place where five thousand Armenians made a stand against the Turks in September and October 1915. The book made the author a national hero of the Armenians. However, this Jewish writer simultaneously sensed the approaching Shoah. Hence, in the second part of the paper, I show how the novel grew in importance during World War II: Musa Dah was compared to the resistancein the Jewish ghettos (e.g. the situation of the population in Bialystok). Janusz Korczak was to discuss the novel in the summer of 1941, also the chronicler of the Warsaw Ghetto, Emmanuel Ringelblum, in June 25, 1942 compared the Warsaw Ghetto to Musa Dah.
PL
The article attempts to give a brief overview of the history of Israeli discourse on the Armenian Genocide, which still has not been officially recognised by the State of Israel. The main objective of the paper is to point out the key events and attitudes taken as part of the Israeli discourse that are – directly and indirectly – responsible for this situation. The problem is analysed in two major contexts – namely those of the official, Israeli Holocaust discourse and the foreign politics of the state, including the influence these two spheres had on the ArmenianGenocide’s official status in the Israeli collective memory.
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The Holocausts

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PL
The article examines genocide as a category that has been used and abused in various, especially historical, political, and ideological, discourses. It considers whether the extermination of Jews (the Holocaust) should be studied in the context of other mass crimes. I investigate various sources of twentieth-century organized violence and their literary representations. I also discuss the works of Polish literature (by Nałkowska, Gębarski, Woroszylski, and Margolis), which depict twentieth- -century acts of genocide (the extermination of Jews and Armenians, in particular) in the context of other mass crimes.
EN
The article focuses on Kurt Vonnegut’s lesser-known and underappreciated 1987 novel Bluebeard, which is analyzed and interpreted in the light of Marianne Hirsch’s seminal theory of postmemory. Even though it was published prior to Hirsch’s formulation of the concept, Vonnegut’s novel intuitively anticipates it, problematizing the implications of inherited, second-hand memory. To further complicate matters, Rabo Karabekian, the protagonist-narrator of Bluebeard, a World War II veteran, amalgamates his direct, painful memories with those of his parents, survivors of the Armenian Genocide. Both the novel and the theory applied to it centre on the problematics of historical and personal trauma, engendered by two genocides which are often the object of comparative analyses: the Armenian Genocide, also referred to as the Armenian Holocaust, and the Jewish Holocaust. The latter is central to Hirsch’s interdisciplinary work in the field of memory studies, encompassing literature, the visual arts and gender studies. In Bluebeard, Vonnegut holds to account a humanity responsible for the atrocities of twentieth-century history: two world wars and two genocides for which they respectively established the context. The article examines the American writer’s reflection on death and violence, man’s destructive impulse and annihilation. In a world overshadowed by memories of mass extermination, Vonnegut interrogates the possibility of a new beginning, pointing to women as agents of renewal and sociopolitical change. He also identifies the role that art plays in the process of potential reconstruction, the story of Karabekian, a failed artist and highly successful art collector, being a Künstlerroman with a feminist edge.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest przedstawienie mechanizmów ochrony praw pamięci na gruncie strasburskiego systemu ochrony praw jednostki, opartego na literalnym brzmieniu europejskiej konwencji praw człowieka (EKPC), jak również praktyce orzeczniczej Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka (ETPC). Powyższa problematyka zostanie poddana analizie w oparciu o metodę dogmatyczno-prawną, sprowadzającą się do wykładni poszczególnych postanowień konwencji, jak również linii orzeczniczej ETPC. Podstawową hipotezą stawianą przez autorkę jest istnienie dwupoziomowego standardu ochrony przed negacjonizmem praw pamięci, w zależności od rodzaju zanegowanego prawa pamięci.
EN
The objective of the article hereto is to present the mechanisms of the memory rights’ protection within the Strasbourg system, based upon the literal resonance of the European Convention of Human Rights and judicial practice of the European Court of Human Rights. Such topic will be subjected to analysis through the legal-dogmatic method which relies upon the construction of the concrete provisions of the Convention as well as jurisprudence of ECHR. The basic hypothesis of the author is the existence of the double standards of memory rights’ protection against negationism, depending from the type of denied memory right.
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