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The Role of Experts in a Democratic Society

100%
EN
Democratic procedures are characterized by the equal status of all citizens participating in the decision-making process. This procedural fairness represents one of the central aspects of democracy's legitimacy-generating potential and should not be rejected or weakened. However, citizens specialize in different areas and inevitably some citizens become more competent (i.e. become experts) regarding some political issues. Democratic procedure would loose much of its appeal if it would be unable to take advantage of the experts' knowledge. In this paper I follow Kitcher and Christiano in embracing a form of division of epistemic (and political) labour - citizens and their political representatives should deliberate and set aims the political community is to pursue, while experts and policy-makers should devise means (laws, public policies and political decisions) needed to achieve the aims set by citizens. However, citizens should not blindly trust the experts - their epistemic authority is derivative and social and academic networks and structures should be employed in order to enable citizens to assess and evaluate experts' competence, but experts' impartiality regarding the issue at hand as well. Consequently, the process should not be unidirectional: experts should be able to help citizens select feasible and coherent aims, while citizens should be able to help experts in creating policies and decisions. Deliberative democracy is an appropriate political setting for this kind of bidirectional communication.
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2019
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vol. 12
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issue 20
91-110
FR
Presque quinze ans après son adoption, le système d’application décentralisée prévu par le règlement n° 1/2003 a influencé le droit de la concurrence d’une manière difficilement prévisible, tant en termes d’ampleur que de qualité des activités des autorités nationales de concurrence. Plus récemment, la directive dite «ECN+» a été adoptée pour remédier aux lacunes de ce système, à savoir le défaut d’indépendance et de responsabilité de plusieurs autorités nationales de concurrence et un certain degré de divergence au sein du réseau européen de la concurrence. Dans ce scénario, l’autorité italienne de la concurrence a souvent été présentée comme une autorité bien équipée, indépendante et efficace, et – à moins de quelques exceptions – le débat international concernant cette réforme a pour la plupart négligé son impact possible dans le système juridique italien. Le present article vise à établir si, et dans quelle mesure, la directive ECN+ doit affecter l’application du droit de la concurrence en Italie et, en particulier, les guaranties fondamentales d’indépendance et d’efficacité qui constituent le fondement de l’État de droit dans le domaine du droit communautaire de la concurrence.
EN
Almost fifteen years after its adoption, the system of decentralized enforcement laid down in Regulation 1/2003 has shaped competition law in a way that could hardly be predicted, in terms of both magnitude and quality of the activities of National Competition Authorities. More recently, the so-called ‘ECN+ Directive’ was adopted to address the shortcoming of such system, namely a perceived lack of independence and accountability of several NCAs and a certain degree of divergence within the European Competition Network. In this scenario, the Italian Competition Authority has frequently been depicted as a well-equipped, independent and effective enforcer and – with a few notable exceptions – the international debate concerning such reform has mostly overlooked its possible impact within the Italian legal system. This paper aims to assess whether, and to what an extent, the ECN+ Directive should affect the enforcement of competition law in Italy and, in particular, those fundamental guarantees of independence and effectiveness that form the core of the rule of law in the field of EU competition law. independent and effective enforcer and – with a few notable exceptions – the international debate concerning such reform has mostly overlooked its possible impact within the Italian legal system. This paper aims to assess whether, and to what an extent, the ECN+ Directive should affect the enforcement of competition law in Italy and, in particular, those fundamental guarantees of independence and effectiveness that form the core of the rule of law in the field of EU competition law.
EN
Joseph Vialatoux is the main figure in social Catholicism in France in the first half of the twentieth century. During the Nazi occupation he examined the nature of Pétain’s government in Vichy and the legitimacy of resistance of General de Gaulle. Apart from a detailed analysis of the Vichy’s power, which Vialatoux reveals as a totalitarian regime, he deals with general philosophical reflections on political power. It may be surprising for some that here the author uses the scholastic model, which can already be found in works more than three hundred years earlier in the political thinking of Francisco Suárez. This theoretical analysis then helps the author defend the ideas of the legitimacy of the resistance of General de Gaulle, in which Vialatoux sees a representative of the national consciousness and defending the general welfare of the French nation.
EN
Ways in which children are raised and educated in the family are changing. Therefore it is necessary to strengthen education towards familyhood and parenthood because emotional and behavioural qualities that children acquire at home and in schools determine the future life of the young generation.
Vox Patrum
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1984
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vol. 6
304-316
EN
Analyzing some of St. Hilary’s of Poitiers statements, included in the "Tractatus super Psalmos", we come to the conclusion that the objective value of Septuaginta depends on three things.
EN
The financial sector is highly affected by the spectre of climate change and other sustainability-related factors, as recognised by various global and EU policies. The 2015 Paris Agreement enshrines the signatories’ goal to make “finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.” The European Union, since the European Commission’s 2018 Sustainable Finance Action Plan, has introduced an array of regulations intended to facilitate private investment in transition as well as to include ESG risk management in the prudential regulation. The article tracks and analyses the latter interventions with view to assess their coherence and to identify the potential long-term effects, in the context of the persistent barriers to the development of the Polish sustainable finance sector.
EN
The study is aimed to sketch the dispute which took place on the Council of Basle between the representatives of Czech Church and Roman Catholic Church, namely between John of Rokycany and Ivan of Dubrovnik. The theme of the discussion was mainly the question of communion under both kinds for the laity, which could be regarded just as a disciplinary matter. In: reality, both disputers show that there are ecclesiological consequences: How should the Church be understood? What is Jesus’s relation to this church? The dispute thus reflected the Church reform initiated by John Wycliffe and advanced by John Hus. The question of communion under both kinds for laity provided an opportunity to rethink the nature of the Church, the role of authority in it and the relation between the Church and Eucharist. This would, however, presuppose a certain way of perceiving the Eucharist (a sacrament or a sacrifice?), which both theologians present to justify their notion of the Church. In: order to resolve these questions, it was necessary to face a methodological problem: How to interpret the Bible and who is the supreme authority to offer an authentic interpretation? According to John of Rokycany, it is the Church while Ivan of Dubrovnik claims that it is the authority of the Church. The dispute is thus an example of the relation between the mysteries which theology should pursue.
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Krize liberální demokracie a pojem společného dobra

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EN
According to Pierre Manent, an eminent French Catholic political philosopher and a disciple of Leo Strauss, the concept of the common good has lost all its intelligibility in contemporary French society. It has been replaced by an emphasis on the concept of human rights. Human rights as such are not able, however, to serve as a viable basis for a political society. A similar analysis can be found in other Christian authors: for instance, vis-à-vis the crisis of contemporary liberal democracies, the main representatives of the so-called Radical Orthodoxy movement, John Milbank and Adrian Pabst, plead for the return of the politics of the common good. What is missing, however, in the works of these contemporary scholars is a systematic analysis of the concept of the common good as such. Up until now, the most elaborate analysis of this concept was developed by the Catholic scholars, Charles De Koninck and Yves R. Simon, during the 1940s and 1950s. Following their example, the article attempts to elucidate this key concept of political philosophy and Catholic social doctrine. In its first part, after an overview of the two basic meanings of the concept of the common good in Catholic social doctrine, the article analyzes the different facets of De Koninck´s magisterial treatise on the common good. Due to the many more metaphysical interests of De Koninck, the article argues that his concept of the common good must be supplemented by the much more politically focused analysis of Yves R. Simon. This eminent Thomist emphasized the connection between the concept of the (political) common good with the possibility of common action. The article finally offers a thorough reconstruction of the foundations of this neglected tradition of political thought which paradoxically could be seen as an (at least partial) possible cure for the current crises of liberal democratic political regimes.
PL
To ludzie są główną przyczyną sukcesu lub niepowodzenia różnych orga-nizacji, włączając w to wojsko. Niniejsza publikacja omawia dwa zagadnie-nia: główną podstawę przywództwa oraz przywództwo w siłach zbrojnych. Siły zbrojne związane są z rozwojem przywództwa o wiele dłużej niż świat korporacyjny. Zmieniały się zarówno działania wojenne, jak i świat biznesu. Współczesny przywódca powinien dążyć do tego, aby tworzyć sytuacje, w których inni ludzie pragną za nim podążać, a nie narzucać na nich swoje oficjalne przywództwo. Terminy kierownictwo oraz przywództwo są często używane do określenia tego samego pojęcia. Kierownicy mogą, ale nie muszą być przywódcami, podczas gdy przywódcy mogą być lub mogą nie być kierownikami. Sukces przywódcy zależy od jego zdolności zrozumienia siebie samego, innych osób w organizacji, organizacji, jako całości oraz wymagań środowiskowych. Przywództwo w siłach zbrojnych to umiejętność oficerów która, łącząc oficjalną władzę oraz cechy osobowe, zapewnia funkcjonowanie podwładnych. Jest ona szczególna głównie ponieważ zawód żołnierza jest pracą wysokiego ryzyka i każda improwizacja lub brak szacunku dla określonych procedur może doprowadzić do utraty życia. Przywództwo wojskowe rozwijane jest w taki sposób, że oficerowie (oficjalni przywódcy) w ciągu swoich karier są szkoleni oraz ćwiczą, żeby być nieformalnymi przywódcami odnoszącymi sukcesy, i żeby ich podwładni postrzegali ich, jako swoich przywódców. Obecnie przywódcy potrzebni są, jak nigdy wcześniej. Są wynikiem i rozwijają się w zależności od sytuacji. Przywództwo jest spojrzeniem w przyszłość.
EN
The article presents analysis of those fragments of Jesus’ ministry in the Gospel of Mark that were directed exclusively to the addresses referred to as “Disciples and/or the Twelve. The frames for these teachings are contained in the Parable of the Sower (Mk 4,11-20) and in the Mission Speech (Mk 16, 15-17). The parable and its explanation, that may be called Jesus’ programme speech, assume their final and appropriate meanings when combined with the Mission Order. The Mission Order, on the other hand, interpreted in the light of expla-nation of the Parable of the Sower, takes into consideration variants of the Sower’s identity present in the Parable, circumstances of Gospel preaching and reactions to the conveyed contents.
EN
The concept of authority is multi-dimensional. It has various meanings depending on the context of its consideration. Authority performs varied functions, being, for instance, a source of models of behaviour, a factor affecting social stratification or strengthening power. The issue discussed in this article is the essence of the leader’s authority in organisations and the influence of having the authority on the development of an appropriate organisational culture. The authors have conducted a survey among employed students with the usage of a self-formulated questionnaire Authority in the Modern World. The aim of the research was to evaluate the significance of the authority for respondents and their perception of it at workplace. As a result they obtained answers to the questions concerning the ways of defining the term ‘authority’, the methods of developing authority, as well as the influence of particular predispositions or occupied positions on establishing authority.
PL
Pojęcie autorytetu jest wieloznaczne (wielowymiarowe). Autorytet pełni różnorodne funkcje będąc dla przykładu zarówno źródłem wzorców postępowania, czynnikiem wpływającym na uwarstwienie społeczeństwa czy umocnienie władzy. W artykule podjęto kwestię istoty autorytetu lidera w organizacjach oraz wpływu jego posiadania na kształtowanie właściwej kultury organizacyjnej. Dla zilustrowania pewnych tez przeprowadzono badanie ankietowe wśród pracujących studentów posługując się autorskim kwestionariuszem Autorytet we Współczesnym Świecie. Celem ww. badania była ocena znaczenia autorytetu dla osób badanych oraz jego postrzegania w miejscu pracy. Uzyskano odpowiedzi na pytania dotyczące sposobu definiowania pojęcia autorytetu, metod jego kształtowania oraz wpływu określonych predyspozycji czy też zajmowanego stanowiska na budowanie autorytetu.
EN
The study presents the results of the research that the autor carried out in 2007 among students of the Czech language and students of the programme for Primary school teachers, Faculty of Education, Charles University (128 respondents, age 22–25). The research is based mainly on the theory of Hofstede (1999, 2007). The author presents 4 factors that influence the interaction and politeness in the individual cultures: relation towards authorities, relation between individuals and the collective, manner of thinking (competitive or cooperative), accepting risk and uncertainty. The students were asked to judge the situation in the Czech Republic from this point of view. The quantitative results are presented in percentage, the article contains also quotations form the student’s essays about the mentioned topic.
PL
Artykuł wprowadza czytelnika w tematykę władzy centralnej w społeczności muzułmańskiej przez pryzmat nauczania Koranu, ale przede wszystkim w ujęciu historycznym – jest poniekąd historią działalności Mahometa i jego następców w telegraficznym skrócie, od pierwszych objawień w roku 610 do początków XX wieku. Władzę, jako istotny element struktury każdej społeczności ludzkiej, w tym także religijnej, sprawują jej członkowie; koordynując prawa poszczególnych osób, władza umożliwia realizację wspólnego dobra, jednoczącego wszystkich we wspólnym celu. Koran zawiera nie tylko prawdy metafizyczne i religijne, lecz również zasady odnoszące się do organizacji politycznej i społecznej wspólnoty muzułmańskiej (ummy), które sprowadzają się do nakazu, aby wierni byli posłuszni Bogu i jego posłańcowi oraz tym wszystkim, którzy posiadają moc rozkazywania. Na czele wspólnoty wierzących stoi Allah, źródło i dawca wszelkiego prawa i wszelkiej władzy. Jednak Bóg w trosce o wspólnotę wyznaczył proroka Mahometa na ziemskiego głosiciela, stróża i wykonawcę prawa bożego. Okres życia i działalności Mahometa oraz kalifów – kontynuatorów jego dzieła stworzył pewne reguły władzy właściwej dla społeczności muzułmańskiej, wzór dla późniejszych generacji, aczkolwiek rywalizacja kalifów na przestrzeni dziejów islamu była bardzo intensywna, a rozgrywki personalne i polityczne doprowadziły w końcu do powstania dwóch głównych nurtów w islamie: sunnizmu i szyizmu.
EN
The present article acquaints the readers with the topic of central authority in a Muslim society in terms of Qur’an teachings, but most of all in terms of historical events – it is actually a history of Muhammad’s teachings and his successors in a nutshell, from his first revelations in 610 till the beginnings of 20th century. The authority, as a significant element of each social structure, including the religious one, is wielded by this society’s members; while co-ordinating the rights of individual people the authority enables the realisation of a common good that unifies everyone in a common aim. Qur’an contains not only metaphysical and religious truths – it also comprises principles on political and social organisation of Muslim society (umma), which may all be expressed in one order that the confessors should obey God and his heralds as well all those who are empowered with ordering. Allah, the origin and the donor of all laws and power, is the leader of the confessors’ community. However, God, careful about his community assigned Muhammad with the position of an earthly preacher, guardian and executor of God’s law. The life and teachings of Muhammad and the caliphs – his successors created certain rules of the actual authority for the Muslim society, a pattern for subsequent generations, although the caliphs competed with one another very intensely and their personal and political rivalry led towards the division into Islam’s main two trends: the Sunnism and Shi’ism.
PL
This study begins with a brief outline of the essence of the whole encyclical Caritas in veritate. Benedict XVI expresses the desire for „the dialogue with the world”. He understands this dialogue as a special kind of the service of the Church towards eternal love and truth, fully revealed in Christ. The dialogue of the Church with the world, in the spirit of love and truth, is accomplished every day at the level of so-called official relations. There are numerous opinions that in the past the Church repeatedly neglected the dialogue with the world. Indeed, the Church historians point out the existence of examples of the fall of the authority of the Holy See in particular countries and circumstances. Similarly, the Church is the sign of objection in the contemporary world. Instructed by past experiences the Church is aware that what is necessary for the renewal of culture and society, is evangelical love and truth.
Vox Patrum
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2004
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vol. 46
347-362
FR
En demandant de role d'eveque de Romę dans l'antiquite il serait bien se referer a l'ceuvre d'auteur qui lui meme exeręait cette mission et, en plus, il nous a lessait un temoignage suffisamment fort. Saint Gregoire le Grand (540-604) accomplit tres bien cette tache. Il forme un solide point culminante d'epoque patristique, en meme temps il est un intermediaire specifique entre l'antiquite chretienne et Moyen Age. L'autorité d'eveque de Rome, selon notre auteur résulte de commandement de meme Christ et de le role de saint Pierre, le premier éveque de la „Ville Eternelle”. Cette autorite, géneralement pas conteste, il a ete percu de differentes manieres, selon la region geografique, les traditions particulieres, finallement aussi selon la fonction et meme le caractere des personnages, avec les quelles saint Gregoire a tenu des relations.
PL
En demandant de role d'eveque de Rome dans l'antiquite il serait bien se referer a l'ceuvre d'auteur qui lui meme exeręait cette mission et, en plus, il nous a lessait un temoignage suffisamment fort. Saint Gregoire le Grand (540-604) accomplit tres bien cette tache. Il forme un solide point culminante d'epoque patristique, en meme temps il est un intermediaire specifique entre l'antiquite chretienne et Moyen Age. L'autorité d'eveque de Rome, selon notre auteur résulte de commandement de meme Christ et de le role de saint Pierre, le premier éveque de la „Ville Eternelle”. Cette autorite, géneralement pas conteste, il a ete percu de differentes manieres, selon la region geografique, les traditions particulieres, finallement aussi selon la fonction et meme le caractere des personnages, avec les quelles saint Gregoire a tenu des relations.
Vox Patrum
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2004
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vol. 46
87-93
EN
Durch die Untersuchung der wichtigsten Ubersetzungen des Adversus haereses III 3, 1-3 versucht man den theołogischen Kommentar und das Verstandnis des Textes aufzudecken. Dazu hilft auch die griechische Riickubersetzung in „Sources Chretiennes" (L. Doutrełeau und A. Rousseau). Die Autoritat der rómischen Kirche besteht auf der Griindungsautoritat (Aposteł Petrus und Paulus) und auf die ałłen Christen bekannte apostołische Lehre gegeniiber der gnostischen, geheimen Meinungen.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł analizuje rodzinę w najnowszym Magisterium i w duchowości franciszkańskiej. Oprócz tego, że jest uznawana za podstawę społeczeństwa i jego pierwszą szkołę, rodzina jest również proponowana jako model do wyrażania pewnych rzeczywistości teologicznych i podstawowych wartości ludzkich. Artykuł rozpoczyna się od ukazania znaczenia koncepcji rodziny w Magisterium (część pierwsza), a następnie analizuje, w jaki sposób franciszkanie przyjęli ją w swoim sposobie rozumienia siebie, w swoim prawodawstwie i w sprawowaniu władzy (część druga). Wreszcie trzecia część koncentruje się na franciszkańskiej wizji stworzenia jako kosmicznej rodziny.
EN
This article studies the family in the recent Magisterium and in Franciscan spirituality. Besides being recognized as the basis of society and its first school, the family is also proposed as a model to express some theological realities and fundamental human values. The paper begins by showing the importance of the concept of family in the Magisterium (1st part) and then it studies how the Franciscans have assumed it in their way of understanding themselves, in their legislation and in the exercise of authority (2nd part). Finally, the third part focuses on the Franciscan vision of creation as a cosmic family.
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Autorytet artysty ponowoczesnego

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EN
The article contemplates the condition of an artists after postmodernism, with special emphasis on the ideas stemming from their works and the category of authority. It is argued that since ideas attributed to particular artistic works have been changing dramatically, even though the authors rarely show interest in any of them, there exists an independent ontological origin of art. Consequently, it is demonstrated that regardless of different configurations, artists and ideas, the aforementioned basis, or rather movement, remains trans-historical. Even though both ideas and authorities are associated with artists, they are rather produced by theoreticians, historians, critics, philosophers and academics. Bearing that in mind, it might be claimed that postmodernism-just as existential and romantic hermeneutics before it-poses neither a threat nor a radically new order, since artists are still driven by the same force that will later provide the underpinnings for new authorities and ideas.  
PL
W niniejszym artykule podjęty zostaje namysł nad kondycją artysty po postmodernizmie, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem tych kategorii, które wyrastają z ich dzieł, autorytetu oraz autorskości. Jak przekonuje autor, ponieważ idee przypisywane do konkretnych dzieł artystycznych przeszły dramatyczne zmiany, mimo braku zaintereoswania nimi ze strony autorów, musi istnieć niezależna, ontologiczna geneza sztuki. Co więcej, ta zasada, a może dynamika, pozostaje trans-historyczna, niezależnie od różnych konfiguracji autorów i idei. Mimo ze zarówno idee oraz autorytety kojarzone z artystami, są one tak naprawdę "produkowane" przez teoretyków, historyków, krytyków, filozofów oraz nauczycieli akademickich. Zasadne wydaje się zatem twierdzenie, iż postmodernizm - tak, jak egzystencjalna i romantyczna hermeneutyka przed nim - nie stanowi ani zagrożenia dla nich, ani nie ustanawia nowego porządku; artyści wciąż są inspirowani przez tę niezmienną siłę, która następnie będzie stanowić podwaliny dla kolejnych autorytetów i idei.
EN
Complicated situation in Ukraine’s modern politics and mass media requires an examination of the historical background, in particular the situation of Ukrainian mass media on the eve of the elections to the parliament of Ukraine on 28 October 2012. he main objective of the study is to analyze the activities and development tendencies of Ukrainian mass media on the eve of parliamentary elections of 2012. Methodology of the research is based on the use of historical and comparative-historical method in the analysis of the political content in mass media. he efect of information transmission as a factor of election inluencing the mass media, the efect of political content carriers of the mass media, specialties of a particular mass media group activities are analyzed. he methodology for complex analysis of the mass media in election conditions is proposed.
EN
The article completes the study of totalitarianism in the twentieth century. In the first part of the text, we reviewed Joseph Vialatoux’s commentary on Hobbes’ political theory. In the second part, which we present here, we draw conclusions and general principles. Vialatoux is of the opinion that every totalitarianism is a form of naturalism. There are two main forms here. The first form is Hobbes philosophy, while the second is Durkheim’s sociologism. In response to totalitarianism, Vialatoux formulates the philosophy of mind. He then develops the theme of freedom. He distinguishes between inner and outer freedom. In conclusion, he speaks of order and authority as necessary conditions for human freedom.
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