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EN
Early warning systems are responsible for monitoring crisis situations and generating warning signals of situations which escalate and pose a threat to international and human security. The application of this instrument often determines the success of preventive measures and efficiency of further crisis management. Being aware of the importance of this mechanism, the EU invested substantial resources for its development within the CFSP/CSDP framework. Nonetheless, the faulty institutional design and insufficient analytical capabilities of the EEAS put the applicability of the system in question. The article analyses a set of early warning institutional arrangements embedded in CFSP/CSDP institutional structure. In doing so, it describes and examines the main institutional and systemic constrains of early warning utilization in the EU conflict prevention framework.
EN
In the early twenty-first century. France and Germany closely work together to strengthen the effectiveness of the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the. European Security and Defence Policy They led to their treaty and institutional strengthening. Governments Chancellor Angela Merkel focused on the ”culture of moderation“ in foreign policy and ill-considered reform of the Bundeswehr weakened the role of Germany in the area of foreign policy, security and defense policy of the European Union. After the return France to NATO’s integrated structures in 2009. It took place a close military cooperation A with the United Kingdom. Arab revolutions and the crisis in the Ukraine is not caused reevaluations so far in German-French cooperation to strengthen the defence of the European Union and its foreign policy.
EN
The European Neighbourhood Policy as a constituent part of the European Common Foreign and Security Policy is the arena of continuous, inherent as it were, tensions among the ambitions of Member States wanting to play the largest role in the shaping of the European Union’s relationships with the surrounding world. A characteristic and obvious quality of this phenomenon is the fact that particular Member States’ interests in a given region in the neighbourhood of the European Union increases in proportion to its geographical proximity. This creates naturally the phenomenon of a group of Member States interested or specialized in the region of the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea or the Eastern policy. Simultaneously there exists a considerable group of Member States which, because of a considerable distance from a particular region, shows little interest and consequently a frequent lack of understanding of issues related to it. The objective of this article is to capture this phenomenon and to try to systemize it through the notion and methodology of the National Specialization Index.
EN
This paper aims to demonstrate the ineptitude of the European Union in implementing action to ensure security of the member states and, in consequence, pursuing effective foreign policy towards states which are indirectly involved in the relationships within the European region. The author argues the proposition through confrontation and interpretation of knowledge conveyed in expert sources.
EN
Central Asia is not a priority for the European Union. Relations with the states in this region were established immediately after the former Soviet republics won independence but, despiteattempts at rapid advancement there, the results of mutual cooperation and mutual commitments have been unsatisfactory. The objective of this paper is to analyze the priorities of the European Union’s policy towards Central Asia after 2012. These priorities are viewed from the regional and national perspectives. The analysis studies a comprehensive range of legal documents to establish the framework of mutual relations and the broad range of mutual political declarations. The key elements of this analysis involve examining the determinants that have shaped the political priorities, the institutional mechanisms established for the purpose of political decision-making and the conduct of collaboration. The paper also looks at the main challenges faced in those areas of cooperation that are deemed crucial. The final part of the analysis leads to conclusions that make it possible to assess how feasible it is to implement EU policies in relations with Central Asian states.
PL
Azja Centralna nie jest obszarem priorytetowego zainteresowania ze strony Unii Europejskiej. Choć relacje z państwami regionu nawiązano zaraz po uzyskaniu przez byłe republiki radzieckie niezależności i intensywnie próbowano rozwijać przez następne lata, dzisiejsze efekty współpracy wynikające ze wzajemnych zobowiązań nie są satysfakcjonujące. Celem artykułu jest analiza priorytetów polityki zagranicznej Unii Europejskiej wobec Azji Centralnej po roku 2012. Priorytety zostały przedstawione w dwóch ujęciach: regionalnym i krajowym. Analizie podlegał pełen zakres dokumentów prawnych określających ramy wzajemnych relacji,jak i szersze spektrum obustronnych deklaracji politycznych. Kluczowymi elementami analizy stały się: uwarunkowania kreowania priorytetów politycznych, utworzony mechanizm instytucjonalny niezbędny do kształtowania decyzji politycznej, jak i realizacji założeń współpracy. Artykuł porusza także główne wyzwania w uznanych za kluczowe wymiarach współpracy.Końcowa część analizy prowadzi do wniosków pozwalających na ocenę możliwości realizacji założonych celów polityki unijnej w relacjach z państwami Azji Centralnej.
EN
The European Union is currently in the process of defi ning its position in the international arena. European integration, especially in the context of foreign affairs, has proved to be a challenging experience, as revealed in more than one crisis. In the empirical scope, this refers mostly to the lack of unity and cohesion between the Member States in reacting to and/or resolving international issues, which results from the diversity of interests presented by the Member States. In the theoretical scope, the main issue lies in establishing the characteristic traits of the European Union in international relations. The popular concept of the European Union acting as a ‘normative power’ in international crises fails to satisfy a number of important aspects. In such a context there is a need to develop more precise and politically neutral instruments to analyse the European Union’s activities in the international sphere.
EN
The article aims to analyze the issue of respect for human rights as a general objective of the EU’s external action. It does so from a legal and political perspective, starting with a brief overview of the legal framework which firmly places human rights at the centre of the EU’s external relations. The EU’s main policy framework and main external instruments will be subsequently described. The concluding section contains some critical remarks on the EU’s aspiration to establish itself as a global promoter of values, in particular the need to improve the coherence and effectiveness of its human rights external policy. Such a need stems from, among others, a fragmentation of the EU’s competences between supranational economic actions and intergovernmental CFSP as well as the absence of clear and strong EU powers in the area of human rights. The present situation involves a paradox, because, on the one hand, there is a lack of Treaty regulations providing clearly that respect for human rights is a general and cross-cutting component of internal EU policies whereas, on the other hand, under these regulations the protection of human rights is seen as an important objective of the EU’s external action.
EN
In the context of inter-institutional litigation concerning the legal basis of the European Union acts which have a constitutional significance, cases which call into question the dividing line between the external action of the European Union in areas covered by the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and the Common Foreign and Security Policy enshrined in the Treaty on European Union have become increasingly important following the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. The two cases under review constitute a new stage in the dispute between the European Commission and the Council of the European Union concerning the appropriate legal bases for the conclusion and implementation of the “new generation” partnership agreements. In both cases, the Court of Justice of the European Union was called upon for the first time to rule on the demarcation between the competences falling within the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the competences falling within the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union in the context of the implementation of one of these agreements, specifically with regard to the adoption of a decision under Article 218(9) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, by which the Council establishes the European Union’s position within the body set up pursuant to that agreement. The Court of Justice of the European Union therefore had to rule whether the position taken by the European Union with regard to decisions taken in an international body is to be determined by the Council unanimously or by qualified majority in accordance with Article 218(9) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. This issue is of utmost importance as the decision-making system of the Council of the European Union depends on its determination.
EN
The paper attempts to indicate the determinants of the reorientation of the European Union’s policy towards North Africa after 2011 on account of the EU’s involvement in the Arab Spring and to analyze the new attitude to the possibilities of practical implementation of EU policy instruments. These considerations allow conclusions on further EU involvement in North Africa and building new frameworks for the EU’s strategic approach in this region to be presented both in terms of how various interests are established in Brussels and how the joint standpoint is presented and practical activities launched internationally.
PL
Celem artykułu jest ukazanie uwarunkowań reorientacji polityki Unii wobec regionu Afryki Północnej po roku 2011, w związku z jej zaangażowaniem podczas ‘arabskiej wiosny’, a także analiza zakresu nowego podejścia w odniesieniu do praktycznych możliwości wdrażania unijnych instrumentów polityk. Powyższe rozważania pozwolą na przedstawienie wniosków dotyczących dalszego zaangażowania Unii Europejskiej w regionie Afryki Północnej i budowy nowych ram podejścia strategicznego UE w tym regionie, zarówno na płaszczyźnie ustalania interesów na arenie brukselskiej, jak i przedstawienia wypracowanego stanowiska i uruchomienia działań na arenie międzynarodowej.
PL
1. W niniejszym artykule zbadano genezę Europejskiej Służby Działań Zewnętrznych (ESDZ) w latach 2002–2005. Postulat utworzenia unijnej dyplomacji pojawił się w trakcie obrad Konwentu Europejskiego w 2002 r. Wraz z przyjęciem traktatu konstytucyjnego w Unii Europejskiej rozpoczęła się dyskusja na temat kształtu nowej instytucji. Ten proces został przerwany w połowie 2005 r., kiedy to Traktat ustanawiający Konstytucję dla Europy został odrzucony. W artykule zostały omówione główne koncepcje, stanowiska państw członkowskich i instytucji Unii Europejskiej oraz przebieg toczącej się w tym okresie debaty.
EN
1. This article examines the genesis of the European External Action Service (EEAS) between 2002 and the mid 2005. The idea of the creation of the EU diplomacy appeared during the work of the European Convention in 2002. At the time of the adoption of the Constitutional Treaty, the problem of the shape of the new institution had been under discussion in the European Union. This process was interrupted in 2005, when the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was rejected. The article describes the main concepts, the position of Member States, as well as the EU institutions and the course of the ongoing debate in this period.
PL
Celem artykułu jest analiza Unii Europejskiej jako aktora na arenie międzynarodowej z punktu widzenia trzech najbardziej wpływowych koncepcji, tj. Europy jako potęgi cywilnej, normatywnej i militarnej. Charakterystyka dokonana jest przy uwzględnieniu ewolucji aktywności zewnętrznej Unii, począwszy od nieudanych prób zainicjowania integracji politycznej w latach 50. XX wieku aż do okresu po wejściu w życie traktatu lizbońskiego w 2009 r. Unia Europejska jest traktowana jako nowy rodzaj potęgi, którego wartość wynika ze stosowania instrumentów gospodarczych i dyplomatycznych (potęga cywilna), przywiązania do wartości i norm prawa międzynarodowego (potęga normatywna) oraz z ograniczonego stosowania instrumentów militarnych w postaci operacji petersberskich (potęga militarna). UE nie może jednak w pełni odegrać istotnej roli na arenie międzynarodowej. Ograniczenia w tym zakresie wynikają z braku należytej reakcji przez UE na wiele bieżących wyzwań o charakterze wewnętrznym (np. Brexit) lub zewnętrznych (np. wojna domowa w Syrii i napływ uchodźców do Europy). Są one także rezultatem faktu, że Unia Europejska jest traktowana jako struktura hybrydowa, gdyż wywodzi się z różnych źródeł lub składa się z elementów o odmiennym lub przeciwstawnym charakterze.
EN
The aim of the article is to analyse the European Union as an actor in the international arena from the point of view of the three most influential concepts, i.e. Europe as a civilian, normative and military power. Characterization is made taking into account the evolution of the Union's external activities ranging from failed attempts to initiate political integration in the 1950s until the period after the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. The European Union is treated as a new kind of power, whose value is derived from the use of economic and diplomatic instruments (a civilian power), attachment to the values and norms of international law (a normative power) and the limited use of military instruments in the form of Petersberg operations (a military power). The EU cannot fully play a significant role in the international arena. Restrictions in this regard derive from the lack of an adequate response by the EU to many current challenges internal (e.g. Brexit) or external challenges (e.g. the war in Syria and the influx of refugees to Europe). They are also the result of the fact that the European Union is treated as a hybrid structure, since it is derived from different sources, or consists of elements with different or opposite nature.
PL
W niniejszym artykule przeanalizowano genezę Europejskiej Służby Działań Zewnętrznych (ESDZ) w latach 2007–2010. Postulat utworzenia unijnej dyplomacji pojawił się w trakcie obrad Konwentu Europejskiego w 2002 r., ale w rezultacie odrzucenia traktatu konstytucyjnego proces tworzenia ESDZ został przerwany na ponad dwa lata. Przyjęcie traktatu z Lizbony, w 2007 r., wywołało konieczność wznowienia prac. W artykule została przeprowadzona analiza najważniejszych dokumentów i wydarzeń, które miały miejsce między uchwaleniem traktatu a 2010 r., kiedy to przyjęto akty prawa wtórnego, regulujące organizację i zasady funkcjonowania Europejskiej Służby Działań Zewnętrznych.
EN
This article examines the genesis of the European External Action Service (EEAS) between 2007 and 2010. The idea of the creation of the EU diplomacy appeared during the works of the European Convention in 2002. However, the process of creation of the EEAS had been suspended for more than two years as a result of the rejection of the Constitutional Treaty. In 2007, the debate was re-opened because of the Treaty of Lisbon adoption. This article analyses the most important documents and events between the adoption of the Treaty and 2010 when the secondary legislation establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service was adopted by the Council.
PL
Europejska Polityka Sąsiedztwa jest areną nieustannych, niejako wpisanych w nią napięć pomiędzy ambicjami państw członkowskich, chcących wywierać, jak największą rolę w kształtowaniu relacji zewnętrznych Unii Europejskiej. Charakterystyczną i wręcz oczywistą cechą tego zjawiska jest fakt, że zainteresowanie państw członkowskich danym regionem w otoczeniu Unii wzrasta proporcjonalnie do jego bliskości geograficznej. Tworzy to w sposób naturalny zjawisko bloków państw członkowskich zainteresowanych i wyspecjalizowanych czy to regionem basenu Morza Śródziemnego, Morza Czarnego, czy też polityki wschodniej. Równolegle istnieje znacząca grupa państw członkowskich, która poprzez swoją znaczną odległość od danego regionu, wykazuje niewielkie zainteresowanie, a więc często i brak zrozumienia dla dotyczących go kwestii. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest uchwycenia tego zjawiska i próba jego systematyzacji poprzez pojęcie i metodologię Wskaźnika Specjalizacji Narodowych.
EN
The European Neighbourhood Policy is the arena of continuous, inherent as it were, tensions among the ambitions of Member States wanting to play the largest role in the shaping of the European Union’s relationships with the surrounding world. A characteristic and obvious quality of this phenomenon is the fact that particular Member States’ interests in a given region in the neighbourhood of the European Union increases in proportion to its geographical proximity. This creates naturally the phenomenon of a group of Member States interested or specialized in the region of the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea or the Eastern policy. Simultaneously there exists a considerable group of Member States which, because of a considerable distance from a particular region, shows little interest and consequently a frequent lack of understanding of issues related to it. The objective of this article is to capture this phenomenon and to try to systemize it through the notion and methodology of the National Specialization Index.
PL
W artykule podjęto analizę uwarunkowań, które decydują o problemach w zakresie polityki zewnętrznej Unii Europejskiej i przekładają się na trudności w realizowaniu jej tożsamości na arenie międzynarodowej. Cele postawione w artykule to: zdefiniowanie zakresu pojęcia „tożsamość Unii Europejskiej w zakresie polityki zewnętrznej” oraz analiza czynników decydujących o problemach w jej realizacji. Analiza osadzona została w teorii instytucjonalizmu historycznego. Przyjęto założenie, że specyfika Unii Europejskiej w relacjach międzynarodowych stanowi wypadkową: definiowania swojej tożsamości względem uczestników relacji międzynarodowych oraz historycznych doświadczeń związanych z budową politycznego wymiaru integracji europejskiej. Metody, jakie zostały zastosowane dla weryfikacji hipotezy, to: analiza historyczna i metoda analizy dokumentów europejskich, istotnych dla integracji w ramach polityki zewnętrznej. W wyniku badania zidentyfikowano czynniki stanowiące o kryzysie tożsamości Unii Europejskiej w zakresie polityki zewnętrznej. Mają one charakter ideacyjny – odnoszą się do przyjętej tożsamości Unii Europejskiej w relacjach międzynarodowych oraz materialny – dotyczą architektury polityczno-instytucjonalnej w zakresie polityki zewnętrznej Unii Europejskiej.
EN
The aim of the article is to explore identity crisis of the European Union in external relations – its causes and consequences. To this end it is necessary to define European Union’s identity in external relations as well as analyse the factors that determine the problems of its foreign policy. The analysis is rooted in historical institutionalism. It is assumed that the distinctiveness of the European Union in international relations is the result of the definition of its identity and the historical experience of building the political dimension of European integration. Methods applied for verification of the hypothesis are: historical analysis and content analysis of the documents relevant to the integration in the field of external policy. The analysis identifies factors constituting an identity crisis of the European Union in external relations, both ideational (identity construction) and material (political and institutional architecture).
EN
The article presents the results of the study problem of formation and implementation of Eastern European policy by Great Britain in the 1990s – 2010s. The features of the European Union’s policy towards the post-Soviet countries of Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova) and the role of Great Britain in this process are shown. The author argues that Britain’s foreign policy towards the countries of Eastern Europe, in particular the post-Soviet space, developed in the context of the general policy of the West and felt strongly influenced by the Russian factor. The strategic objective of the EU’s foreign policy in the new geopolitical environment has been to ensure stability and security in Eastern Europe, the former USSR, especially in the countries near the periphery. In 2002, the UK Government initiated the creation of a European Neighborhood Policy Mechanism. However, it was controversial. The democratic revolutions in Georgia and Ukraine in 2003–2004 did not lead to a radical revision of their relations with the EU. The intensification of tensions in the relations between the European Union, certain Western powers (in particular the United Kingdom) and Russia in the second half of the 2000s contributed to a certain intensification of their policy towards the post-Soviet states. However, the British governments have moved away from leading positions in the European Union integration policy and have taken a passive role in the Eastern Partnership program by giving the initiative to Germany. Despite the important strategic role of the Eastern European region, its importance to the EU and the United Kingdom has always been underestimated. It is concluded that the underestimation of security threats in Eastern Europe, along with the common problems of the Alliance’s development, have led to its inability to guarantee security at its eastern borders without the support of the US and NATO. The result is the United Kingdom, whose government, in the face of leaving the EU and losing influence in the Central Eastern Europe region, is interested in reorienting the United States to European security issues and stepping up NATO activities in Europe. With the UK leaving the EU, only real channel for its influence on the international situation in Eastern Europe will be US-backed NATO mechanisms. The completion of the Brexit process will weaken the position of Eastern European countries in their desire to become full members of the European Union.
PL
W artykule opisano stan stosunków politycznych łączących Izrael i Unię Europejską. Wejście w życie traktatu z Lizbony nadało UE podmiotowość prawnomiędzynarodową. Zmiana ta stanowi krok w kierunku usamodzielnienia się Unii w sferze stosunków międzynarodowych, pozwalając na traktowanie jej jako niezależnego aktora. Kierując się tym założeniem, autor analizuje cele realizowane przez obydwa wspomniane podmioty w relacjach wzajemnych, a także środki zmierzające do ich osiągnięcia. Tekst zawiera też prezentację najistotniejszych przeszkód zakłócających rozwój stosunków między Unią Europejską a Izraelem oraz szans ich przezwyciężenia, które to zadanie wymaga wyjścia poza kwestie bieżące i przedstawienia szerszego historycznego, strukturalnego i strategicznego tła relacji wiążących wspomniane podmioty.
EN
The article presents the state of political relations biding the European Union and Israel. Lisbon reform granted the EU legal personality, which was the next step in extending the autonomy that allows it to be treated like a political actor of international relations. Bearing that it mind, the author attempts to reveal political goals being accomplished by both sides as well as means which lead to their implementation. The aim of the article is also to cover the most important obstacles in mutual relations and prospects of overcoming them. This requires the paper to go beyond discussing the current developments and demands the presentation of historic, structural and strategic background of relations of the two aforementioned entities.
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