The essence of traditional Chinese Confucian philosophy can be termed “Zhongdao-logy”; it searches for the appropriate degree of zhong which is a standard guiding peo-ple’s actions. The Chinese pictographic character “zhong” has multiple meanings, in-cluding centrality, middle, appropriate, fit, just, fair, impartial, upright, etc. In early Confucianism, it has been developed into an important concept with profound philo-sophical connotations; it includes a combination of subjective and objective views, a fusion of different stances and considerations, and postulates a harmony of the internal and external worlds. Zhongdaology takes a dynamic, contextual, correlative and dialec-tic view of things in the world, and provides a way of thinking different from the tradi-tional Western ontological (metaphysical) way of thinking. The practical rationality and wisdom of Zhongdaology are very significant for promoting dialogue and resolving a variety of conflicts in human societies.
The main aim of this article is to analyze some aspects of the historical roots of the North Korean ideology and political system. This study argues that the North Korean ideology is to a certain extent rooted in the historical background of the Korean Peninsula but has also been purposely changed and manipulated in form to deal with at-the-time difficulty and circumstance that the regime faced. Meanwhile what can be observed in the North Korean ideology is that there is no direct referring to the antecedents. These claims are illustrated in this article by various primary material of a propagandistic nature published in North Korea and by research articles.
This study aims to interpret Mencius' political thinking taking as the starting point his doctrine of human nature. Each individual is capable of the moral self-cultivation of his or her innately good human nature, but in this task the individual requires adequate conditions and education. Political power is able to ensure this (and it is, indeed, one of its main asks to do so), but it can also, on the contrary, contribute, in a fundamental way, to the decadence of the state and society. The result of inadequate and ineffective application of political power is a growing crisis in society, especially in the area of inter-personal relations and moral conduct. Mencius' ideal is a relatively small and effective state that looks after its inhabitants and which does not unduly intervene in the social organism. War is understood, by him, as a great evil which is justifiably used only when putting-down an uprising or in self-defence. Generally, Mencius' political thought is characterized by the thought that the virtuous ruler will have, by dint of his strength of character, not only spiritual but also purely practical political successes.
The article presents the influence of Confucianism on formation of the state ideology in China in the 20th century. Confucianism in China was considered both as a religion and philosophy, and fundamentally focusing on the state and society. The emphasis was put on hierarchy and the morality in the family and the whole society. Confrontation with patterns and political ideas of the West during the late of 19th and early 20th centuries made a great impact to further develop of Confucianism in China. Nowadays Confucianism again was put in the center of the new state order. The Communist Party of China instrumentally treats the Confucian ideas to consolidate its power and build social peace. At the same time it promotes Confucianism and Chinese culture as an alternative to the Western values.
The aim of this article is to examine the influence of the Confucian ethics on the perception of human rights in China in context of the development of capitalism in this part of Asia.In the first part of this article the author argues with Max Weber's thesis which states that in China: "from a purely economic point of view, a genuine bourgeois, industrial capitalism might have developed". He examines from sinological perspective his arguments concerning the underdevelopment of capitalism: lack of rational legal system, the influence of Confucianism and lack of middle class. In the second part have been shown the connections between capitalism, market freedoms and human rights. The author claims that capitalism is necessary condition for the development of human rights, but it is not the only one, because the cultural factors play a greater role. In the third part of this article summarizes the two previous parts and argues that late development of capitalism in China is one of main factors that influenced the modern shape of human rights in China. The necessity of developing a free market system have been also underlined in relation to the rule of law and civil society as a base for the concept of human rights with Chinese characteristics, that would be acceptable for Western countries.
We often separate knowing and acting into two distinct tasks to perform and think that one must first know and only then can one act. This also indicates that one can have knowledge without action or one can know what the proper action is yet fail to act. This essay will examine theories of learning/knowing suggested in the Confucian and Bud-dhist traditions and argue that there is a strong tendency in Confucianism and Buddhism that favors engaged knowing over detached knowing and rejects the separation between knowing and acting. The essay will also suggest that the idea of engaged knowing sug-gested in Buddhism and Confucianism will help us reevaluate the representationalist notion of knowledge.
The author of this article is trying to prove that today (as in ancient times) exist people, who commit themselves to self-improvement based on the so-called Warrior’s Way. They have much in common with ancient warriors form the Far East. Moreover, it is the culture of honor that determines the value of different nations and all humanity. Despite the fact, that oriental warfare systems are invariably associated with the concept of physical culture, it is their sense of nobleness that determines their special and unique identity. Today you can find many followers of continuation of their own self-improvement process based on the challenges associated with the achievement of psychophysical perfectionism, which is an integral factor in any martial art. The Warrior’s Knight Way carries lots of character of the martial arts schools, which even today meet the needs of safety and self-realization of a person. Decisive influence here have religious systems of India, Tibet, China, Korea and Japan. The author of this article believes, that the decisive factor of personal development (in the Far East Martial Art) is the Buddhist philosophical-religious system and psychology associated with it. In the background appears here neoconfucianism as a combination of Buddhism and Confucian philosophy of the social organism. Not without a meaning are ideas from Hindu (India), Taoism (China) and Sith religion (Japan). Inherent in the Far East martial arts are the traditional transmission and ritual.
Arthur Danto argues that all Eastern philosophies—except Confucianism—fail to accept necessary conditions on genuine morality: a robust notion of agency and that actions are praiseworthy only if performed voluntarily, in accordance with rules, and from motives based on the moral worth and well-being of others. But Danto's arguments fail: Neo-Taoism and Mohism satisfy these allegedly necessary constraints and Taoism and Buddhism both posit moral reasons that fall outside the scope of Danto's allegedly necessary conditions on genuine morality. Thus, our initial reaction, that these eastern philosophies offer genuine moral reasons for action, is sustained rather than overturned.
The aim of this article is to consider questions regarding Japanese culture and Confucianism, especially while researching women in Japan. The author will describe the implementation of Confucian values in Japanese society, the Confucian attitude towards the role of women and the situation of Japanese females. The article will examine the question of whether there are similarities between the situations of women in countries which implemented Confucian morals and ethics, and to compare this situations with contemporary Japanese society.
Confucianism arrived in Japan at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. Confucianism influenced the growth of feudalism and the creation of bushidô, the code of moral principles and an inspiration for Japanese warriors. Miyamoto Musashi was one of the most famous samurai in Japanese history. He established the Niten Ichi Ryû kendô school. In the Book of Five Rings, Musashi set down his own principles, in the belief that each of his students should live by them. Some Confucian elements were included in the Book of Five Rings.
Among the five religions (zōngjiào) whose followers operate in eight legal organizations in the Peo-ple’s Republic of China, there is no Confucianism (rújiā). Interestingly, for over half a century, researchers of this tradition have been engaged in a lively, serious discussion about the possibility of recognizing it as a religion. At the beginning of the article, the difficulties associated with this issue are mentioned. Then, by way of introduction, Confucius’s religiosity as illustrated in the Analects is discussed. The main part presents several rele-vant approaches to Confucianism that emphasize, although for different reasons, its religious character. They are accompanied by various references to the phenomenon of religion, which constitute their context, as well as reservations expressed towards these approaches. Additionally, the text contains comments on Chinese spiritu-ality, which are important in relation to attempts to resolve the discussed issue.
The objective of this research paper is to explore and analyse mediation in the People’s Republic of China and in the Republic of China (Taiwan). The author also investigates the historical, philosophical and social origin of mediation and its development since the Han Dynasty. Mediation has a long tradition in China, and its importance can be traced back to the philosophy of Confucianism. Nowadays mediation is known as the key to resolving all disputes and linking it to the “harmonious society” political doctrine. There are currently a few types of mediation practices in China: mediation by People’s Mediation Committees outside the court, judicial mediation in civil disputes and minor criminal cases inside the court, mediation and arbitration of rural land contract disputes or mediation and arbitration in labour disputes. The importance of mediation is demonstrated by Article 111 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, which provides that “People’s Mediation Committees are a working committee under grassroots autonomous organisations – the Residents Committee and the Villagers Committee – whose mission is to mediate civil disputes.” The Committees and the courts should also popularise, through mediation and arbitration, the laws and the policy and educate citizens to abide by the laws and respect universally accepted morals. As can be seen, owing to the government’s guidance on mediation procedures the number of cases settled through mediation has markedly increased. The statistics show that the parties not only resolve their dispute but are also willing to resort to mediation again. The high success rate of mediation is, among other things, due to the fact that it is a safe and neutral process, and the mediators’ role in facilitating resolution does not impose a solution. Another advantage of mediation is speed and effectiveness as well as a reduction of costs. This article also discusses the Taiwanese experience with mediation, as well as its development. To sum up it may be said that mediation in the People’s Republic of China and in the Republic of China (Taiwan) functions well and is increasingly winning trust of citizens.
The purpose of this article is to present the Chinese diaspora in two Southeast Asian countries, Malaysia and Singapore, and the influence of this group on the society and economy of these countries. Chinese people, who left the country, for instance, for political or remuneration reasons and settled in Southeast Asia, have a significant impact on the region. The influence of this group on countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia, where it has been present for centuries, is substantial. The attitudes of the Islamic Malaysian and secular Singapore governments to overseas Chinese is completely different. In spite of many political, social and economic difficulties, the Chinese diaspora has been able to preserve its culture, language and tradition, and has achieved significant economic success. This economic success has been often associated with aversion to the local community. In modern Southeast Asian history, there are the examples of social tensions that have been turn into anti-Chinese riots. Nevertheless, the Chinese diaspora has contributed actively to the economic development of Malaysia, as well as the economic and political development of Singapore, basically during one generation, on a significant scale.
In Asian countries authoritarian relationships have been noticeable for centuries not only on political but also on social grounds.The teachings of Confucius were important in this aspect. According to many authors, they still exert a significant influence in North Korea and have an impact on the durability of Kim Jong-un. However, there are also opinions that it is a big mistake to describe this country as Confucian. For this reason the aim of this article is to show the real meaning of this ideology in North Korea. This will be done by demonstrating similarities of the present situation to the principles of Confucianism, as well as denials of the guidelines of this ideology. As a result, this will allow the author to analyze how Confucian traditions can determine the future of the regime in Pyongyang.
Before we think about reality, before we talk about it or remain silent, first we have some of the most basic images. What do philosophers brought up in the given culture have in mind when they use the term ‘reality’? In this article I attempt to identify and elaborate the intellectual context proper to Chinese (especially Confucian and Daoist) philosophical culture, by presenting its most general features. How deep must we probe to find the internal network of sense that is the basis of Confucian, and Daoist images of reality? What we are looking for can be found by trying to think in a context that is broader than the merely linguistic context. This broader context is that provided by philosophical understanding of the terms: ‘world,’ ‘individual being,’ ‘thing,’ ‘truth,’ ‘wisdom.’
The Confucian concept of the Great Unity, which refers to a utopian vision of the ideal world in which everlasting peace and harmony prevail, has been for centuries a reference point for the most illustrious Chinese thinkers and emperors in their reflection about the Middle Kingdom and its society. The paper examines understanding and interpretation of the concept of the Great Unity by the two most influential Chinese leaders of the 20th century, Jiang Jieshi and Mao Zedong, who were inspired by this Confucian concept in building a new society and state in the times of the epochal transitions and creation of a new order. The paper begins with an analysis of the political doctrine of Sun Yat-sen, the Three Principles of the People, which was aimed at realization of the Great Unity and had a strong influence on Jiang Jieshi’s political thought. The first part of the paper examines the concept of the Great Unity in the political thought of Jiang Jieshi. It concerns, i.a., economical, political, and social ideal of the concept of the Great Unity, and Jiang’s interpretation of Sun Yat-sen’s principle of people livelihood and the theory of the Confucian scholar Kang Youwei, both of which influenced Jiang’s understanding of the concept of the Great Unity. The second part of the paper examines the concept of the Great Unity in the political thought of Mao Zedong. It concerns Mao’s interpretation of history with its division into three periods and links between Mao’s thought, the theory of Kang Youwei and the Marxist tradition. The significance of the concept of the Great Unity in contemporary official ideology of the Communist Party of China is also analyzed in the paper.
In my paper I bring out two topics from the ancient Chinese political philosophy. (1) Non-action (wúwéi) that was required from the ruler in the Legalist and Huang-Lao tradition (e.g. Han Feizi, Huainanzi) and was incorporated into the mainstream of political philosophy (e.g. Confucian Dong Zhongshu); (2) care of the people and especially of the needy, that is also required from the ruler, and was stressed mainly in the Mohist and Confucian traditions. From these two ideas I hope to get some “refreshment” for our contemporary political philosophy, and I consider them as logical extensions of democracy. On the other hand, I argue also that the traditional conception of non-acting ruler in the Legalist context should be modified with the Western ideas of the separation of powers and transparency of government; and even that this modification would be more consequent and realistic also in terms of the original Chinese idea itself.
In this paper I will take into account the historical, religious and philosophical aspects of the examination of conscience, penance and satisfaction, as well as ritual confession and cure, in Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. I will also take into account the difficulties that baptized Chinese Christians met in sacramental Catholic confession. Human history proves that in every culture and religion, man has always had a need to be cleansed from evil and experience mutual forgiveness. What ritual models were used by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism? To what degree did these models prove to be true? What are the connections between a real experience of evil, ritual confession, forgiveness and cure in Chinese religions and philosophies?
Confucianism has been a leading Chinese philosophical and ethical tradition for a long time. Not just Confucius himself but also Mencius and Xunzi contributed to its development over the centuries. In this paper the principal ethical notions of Confucianism–junzi, dao, ren and li – are characterized in their rich essence and unique context. Though ostensibly having much in common, those concepts can be paralleled to the Western ones only with difficulty and to a limited extent.
Korea and Japan spent much time culturally and politically under the influence of China, which brought Confucianism to these countries. This study explores the influence of Confucianism on modern Japanese and Korean societies. This paper discusses issues such as loyalty and collectivism in the two previous mentioned countries.
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