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EN
The aim of the article is to answer the question if there is a relationship between fiscal policy developed in exogenous business cycle theories and the shape of business cycle. Estimates based on simple linear regression model indicate that the bigger share of government in the economy the flatter shape of business cycle. It suggests that OECD countries economic practice is opposite to the theory. Also the important finding of this paper is that the lower level of intervention in the economy enhances the economic growth in the long run.
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Public debt management

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EN
The paper generally describes the segment of public debt management or especially the structure of public debt. It focuses on different kinds of risks which present potential danger for the public debt explosion. It intends to explain the government goal for borrowing money at lowest rate and sustain the fiscal stability. Also, it explains some practical issues regarding this topic for Republic of Macedonia for the period from 2009-2011. In the process of research were implemented several qualitative methods.
EN
Aim/purpose – Diagnostics of fiscal challenges facing the Eastern Cape Province’s (one of the nine South African provinces) economy reveals a reduction in the number of tax payers, a decrease in the Eastern Cape revenue share, a growing government expenditure but declining revenue, low growth path, high levels of unemployment, poverty and income inequality. To address these challenges, fiscal policy-makers endorsed efficiency in government revenue collection which, if well managed, will increase revenue by 1.5 percent. This study seeks to investigate the impact of fiscal expansion in the Eastern Cape economy. Design/methodology/approach – This study uses the Social Accounting Matrix (SAM- -Leontief Model) to assess the impact of efficiency in revenue collection in the Eastern Cape Province. The model provides demand-side tax multipliers. The methodology used to develop the SAM database is in line with the most recent 2008 System of National Accounts (SNA) released by the United Nations (SNA 2008) and international best practices. Findings – Tax micro-simulations results indicate that an additional R 1 (one Rand) in the fiscus will have positive impact on economic growth, employment creation, poverty reduction and income inequality. Research implications/limitations – SAM is described as the presentation of SNA accounts in a matrix which elaborates the linkages between the Supply and Use Tables and institutional sector accounts. In many instances, SAMs have been applied to an analysis of interrelationships between structural features of an economy and the distribution of income and expenditure among household groups. The limitation of the model is that it assumes constant return to scale and full employment. Nonetheless, SAM is the economic tool, best when used as a database for a computable general equilibrium model. Originality/value/contribution – The study recommends the use of this method for assessing the impact of regional economy on the entire country because it is a square matrix that quantitatively captures the transactions that occurred between the production sector, private (households), public (government) institutions, other factors, and the rest of the world. This technique is used for the first time to analyze the economy of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa.
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Deep Roots of Fiscal Behavior

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EN
This paper investigates the determinants of fiscal policy behavior and its time-varying volatility, using panel data for a broad set of advanced and emerging market economies during the period 1990–2012. The empirical results show that discretionary fiscal policy is influenced by policy inertia, the level of public debt, and the output gap in both advanced and emerging-market economies. In addition, the paper finds that macro-financial factors (such as real exchange rate, financial development, interest rates, asset prices, and natural resource rents) and demographic and institutional factors (such as the old-age dependency ratio, the quality of institutions, and policy anchors such as fiscal rules and IMF-supported stabilization programs) tend to have a significant effect on fiscal policy behavior. The results also indicate that higher government debt leads to more volatile fiscal behavior, while fiscal rules and higher institutional quality reduce the volatility of fiscal policy over time.
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Inflation in Egypt: A fiscal or monetary phenomenon?

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EN
Fiscal and monetary policy are characterized by mutual interdependence. In particular, the levels of budget deficit and public debt affect interest rates and prices. Hence, fiscal policy status affect the conduct and targets of monetary policy, and can undermine its effectiveness in curbing inflation. This paper utilizes a Structural Vector Auto-regression (SVAR) approach to investigate the impact of fiscal shocks on monetary policy and overall price level in Egypt. This is particularly relevant for the Egyptian economy since it currently witnesses unprecedented inflation rates and high levels of public debt as well. Hence, it is crucial to understand how the high levels of public debt affect prices, interest rates and other variables. Empirical model results found evidence supporting the application of fiscal theory of prices in Egypt. The main findings of this work is that inflation in Egypt is primarily a fiscal phenomenon, rather than a monetary one, as the impulse response functions have shown that a positive shock to fiscal deficit leads to a significant increase in consumer price index. Although the Central bank reacts to high prices by increasing the discount rate, the effect of this instrument on the price level is not significant, given the high level of budget deficit and public debt. Furthermore, variance decomposition showed that budget deficit proceeds the discount rate in explaining changes in prices, implying that monetary policy alone has limited effectiveness in targeting inflation.
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PL
Istotą kontroli społecznej nad władzą publiczną jest pełna transparentność jej działań. Staje się to możliwe tylko wówczas, gdy wszelka aktywność państwa przez budżet jest jawna i właściwie raportowana. Dotyczy to szczególnie różnego rodzaju instrumentów fiskalnych – takich jak tax expenditures (TEs), które omijając sprawozdawczość budżetową, konstytuują swego rodzaju szarą strefę wydatków publicznych. Brak raportowania tego typu aktywności fiskalnej sprawia, że nie do końca znani są beneficjenci pomocy publicznej, a także nieznane pozostają faktyczne rozmiary interwencji państwa oraz jej skutki dla budżetu i społeczeństwa. Celem artykułu jest zbadanie zależności występujących pomiędzy TEs, traktowanymi jako ukryte pośrednie wydatki publiczne, a bezpośrednimi wydatkami oraz deficytem budżetowym.
EN
The essence of social control over public authority is the full transparency of its activities. It is possible only if all state activity by the budget is public and properly reported. This particularly applies to various types of fiscal instruments – such as tax expenditures, which bypassing budget reporting, constitute a kind of shadow economy of public spending. The lack of reporting of this type of fiscal activity means that the beneficiaries of state aid are not well known, as well as the actual size of state intervention and its effects on the budget and society. The aim of the article is to examine the relationships between TEs, treated as hidden indirect public spending, and direct expenditure or budget deficit.
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PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest problematyce wydatkowych reguł fiskalnych w Polsce. Trwałe pogorszenie stanu finansów publicznych, kryzys na rynkach finansowych oraz nałożenie na Polskę procedury nadmiernego deficytu spowodowały konieczność reorientacji prowadzonej polityki fiskalnej w kierunku oparcia jej na trwałych, wiarygodnych i przejrzystych regułach gwarantujących stabilną poprawę sytuacji finansów publicznych w Polsce z uwzględnieniem wymogów unijnych. W artykule omówiono doraźną (dyscyplinującą) i docelową (stabilizującą) regułę wydatkową, a także dokonano oceny ich wdrożenia, przede wszystkim z punktu widzenia systemu finansów publicznych w Polsce.
EN
The article is focused on expenditures fiscal rules in Poland implementing since 2011 during severe public finance crisis. Difficulties on financial markets and excessive deficit procedure set on Poland in 2009. Firstly, the temporary fiscal rule based on elastic state budget expenditures was implemented. Secondly, in 2013 stabilising expenditure rule was set based on planned amount of expenditures of general government sector and it is expected to significantly limit the growth of public expenditure in the following years. Introducing the expenditure rule in the Polish fiscal framework gives an increase in transparency and stability of fiscal policy. This effort was a significant factor in closing the excessive deficit procedure and will give the opportunity to meet in 2018 the medium term budget objective.
EN
In this paper the methodology to assess the effectiveness of automatic stabilizers is applied to Polish quarterly data for 2004-2012. The methodology is based on the separation of permanent from cyclical components of public expenditures and estimation the effect of stabilizers in private consumption and output. In European Monetary Union, without the possibility of monetary policy, passive fiscal policy is the only instrument that the authorities are able to use to dampen the effects of business cycle at national level. The paper presents the analysis of the effectiveness of fiscal policy in Poland based on the structural VAR approach. The analysis show a positive response of industrial production and private consumption to expenditure shocks. It is worth underlying that reaction of industrial production to cyclical component of government expenses is more significant that the reaction of private consumption. In both cases both variables response to public spending is immediate and it takes place in first quarter. (original abstract)
EN
Libya is highly dependent on exhaustible and volatile hydrocarbon resources, which constitute the bulk of government revenues. Although resource wealth provides the means to promote socio-economic development, procyclical fiscal policies threaten macroeconomic stability as well as fiscal sustainability and intergenerational equity. This paper provides an assessment of the cyclically adjusted fiscal stance, analyzes fiscal sustainability according the permanent income framework, and simulates various fiscal policy rules with the objective of developing a rulebased fiscal strategy that would delink the economy from oil price fluctuations, improve the management of resource wealth, and safeguard macroeconomic stability. The empirical results suggest that an “enhanced” structural fiscal balance rule would provide the strongest anchor for policymaking, accommodating for output and/or commodity price shocks, though at the cost of relative complexity.
Ekonomista
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2020
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issue 3
372-400
PL
Celem artykułu jest przeprowadzenie analizy porównawczej wpływu wydatków publicznych o charakterze inwestycyjnym gospodarkę Polski i Portugalii w latach 1997-2017. W teorii ekonomii istnieją rozbieżne opinie co do wpływu ekspansywnej polityki fiskalnej na wzrost gospodarczy. Bezpośredni i pośredni wpływ rosnących wydatków rządowych na gospodarkę jest jednym z węzłowych pytań w ocenie efektywności polityki wydatków państwowych. W analizie empirycznej wykorzystano kilka modeli regresji do zbadania kluczowych relacji związanych z oceną makroekonomicznych efektów wydatków publicznych w obydwu badanych krajach. Wyniki estymacji wskazują na istnienie w Polsce efektów pozytywnych, jeśli chodzi o wpływ publicznych wydatków inwestycyjnych na wielkość inwestycji sektora prywatnego oraz na produkt krajowy brutto. Innym spostrzeżeniem jest brak negatywnego wpływu inwestycji sektora publicznego na konkurencyjność gospodarki mierzoną zmianami realnego kursu walutowego. Potwierdza to obecność efektu komplementarności pomiędzy inwestycjami prywatnymi i publicznymi i wyklucza relację substytucyjną. Natomiast w odniesieniu do Portugalii nie stwierdzono w skali całego badanego okresu pozytywnego wpływu inwestycji publicznych na gospodarkę. Może to wskazywać, że początkowy stymulujący efekt dopływu funduszy unijnych oraz krajowych publicznych nakładów inwestycyjnych, obserwowany w poprzednich okresach, stopniowo zanikał i przekształcał się w tendencję do wypierania inwestycji prywatnych przez inwestycje publiczne. Jednak ten rezultat można również przypisać późniejszej stagnacji gospodarki związanej z konsekwencjami kryzysu 2008+ i późniejszej recesji, w których to warunkach publiczne nakłady nie są zdolne do z aktywizowania w istotnym stopniu prywatnych przedsiębiorstw. Koszt finansowy reprezentowany przez nominalną stopę procentową również odgrywa istotną rolę w kształtowaniu prywatnych inwestycji zarówno w Polsce, jak i w Portugalii, a w konsekwencji w kształtowaniu dynamiki produkcji.
EN
The article aims to analyse on a comparative basis the effects of public investment spending on the economies of Poland and Portugal in the period 1996-2017. In the economic theory, there are divergent opinions as to the impact of expansionary fiscal policy on economic growth. The direct and indirect impact of the increasing government spending on the economy is one of the key questions in assessing the effectiveness of government spending policy. In the empirical analysis several regression models were used to examine major relationships that are essential in the assessment of the macroeconomic effects of public spending in both countries. The estimation results for Poland point at the presence of a positive effect of public investments on the volume of private sector's investment outlays and gross domestic product. Another finding is the absence of negative effects of public investments on economic competitiveness measured by the real exchange rate. This confirms the existence of complementarity between private and public investment and excludes their substitutability. On the other hand, in case of Portugal, there is no evidence of the positive macroeconomic influence of public investment spending throughout the analysed period. This may indicate that the initial stimulating effect of the inflow of EU funds combined with domestic public investment outlays, which was observed in earlier years, tended to disappear and transformed into crowding-out of private investmens by public investments. However, this result can also be connected with the economic stagnation resulting from the 2008+ crisis and the later recession when public outlays were not able to activate the private companies enough. Financial costs represented by nominal interest rate played also an important role in shaping private investment in both Poland and Portugal and in the output evolution.
EN
Monetary policy and fiscal policy are the two important macroeconomic policies which are used to achieve certain major macroeconomic goals like economic growth, unemployment reduction, counteract inflation and overall economic development of the nation. The effect of macroeconomic variables may differ in terms of degree, duration, different economic systems and under different exchange rate regimes. This study analyses the effectiveness of monetary policy and fiscal policy on the economy in terms of economic integration and different exchange rate regimes. Regression analysis in this study found that the fiscal policy is more effective in a closed economy and monetary policy is more effective in an open economy. Also the study finds that the fiscal policy is more effective under managed float exchange rate regime and monetary policy is more effective under perfectly flexible exchange rate. So this study also validated Mundell− Fleming model.
EN
By joining the European Monetary Union (the “EMU”), member countries lost the ability to use monetary policy as a tool for macroeconomic regulation. The attention was then focused on regulation of fiscal policy and Stability and Growth Pact (the “SGP”) was the instrument agreed upon. The states of the EMU have agreed to meet the 3% of GDP requirement for the maximum annual public budget deficit. Based on evolution of public debt in member countries, we can say that the SGP has failed as a tool for fiscal discipline. In this paper, we answer the question of whether the failure was due to the incorrect concept of the SGP or whether the development of the debt was affected more by arbitrary disrespect of the agreed rules. The two reasons mentioned above are interdependent. To separate them, we construct a dynamic model of EU countries’ public debt. By using real data, we simulate the potential values of public debt in a situation where the SGP rules have been respected in recent years. Comparing the results for the potential debt given by simulation of the model with the current real values, we are able to quantify the impact of non-compliance for each country. The initial results indicate that there are both EU states where non-compliance led to a negligible increase in public debt - up to 7% of GDP - and other states where this factor caused the growth of public debt by more than 30% of GDP.
PL
Kształt polityki fiskalnej, a także dochodowej, zyskuje szczególnego znaczenia, gdyż stwarza-ne przez nie warunki ekonomiczne determinują poziom i zróżnicowanie dochodów osiąganych przez gospodarstwa domowe. W artykule wskazano, że makroekonomiczny schemat tworzenia PKB oraz kategorii pokrewnych, a także polityka fiskalna państwa „przekładają się” na rozporządzalne dochody gospodarstw domowych. Tym samym można mówić o współoddziaływaniu PKB i bu-dżetu państwa (na poziomie makroekonomicznym) i dochodów gospodarstw domowych (na po-ziomie mikroekonomicznym).
EN
Shape of fiscal policy, as well as of income policy, gains a special importance because the economic conditions created by the policies determine level and differentiation of incomes achieved by households. The study indicates that the macroeconomic scheme of creation of GDP and similar categories along with fiscal state policy influence disposable incomes of households. Thus, one can say about interdependence between GDP and state budget (at macroeconomic level) and households incomes (at microeconomic level).
PL
Ocena skuteczności polityki pieniężnej i fiskalnej jest często przeprowadzana na podstawie mnożników polityki pieniężnej i polityki fiskalnej. W artykule ocena skuteczności polityki pieniężnej i fiskalnej zostanie wykonana na podstawie teorii sterowania optymalnego. W celu oceny skuteczności zostaną porównane oczekiwane koszty dobrobytu w trzech przypadkach: oba instrumenty polityki pieniężnej i fiskalnej określone na podstawie sterowania ze sprzężeniem zwrotnym, jak również jeden z instrumentów określony na podstawie reguły ze sprzężeniem zwrotnym, natomiast drugi jako instrument pasywny.
EN
The evaluation of effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy is often performed on the basis of multipliers of the monetary policy and fiscal policy. In this paper we use the optimal control framework to analyze the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies. In order to evaluate the effectiveness will be compared the expected welfare costs in three cases: two instruments of monetary and fiscal policies determined on the basis of feedback rules, and one of the instruments is determined under feedback rule and the second as a passive instrument.
PL
W artykule ukazano powiązania zmian demograficznych powodujących starzenie się społeczeństw krajów Unii Europejskiej z sytuacją finansów publicznych w tych krajach w średnim i długim okresie. Podkreślono, że niekorzystne przewidywane trendy demograficzne tworzą wyzwania dla obecnej polityki fiskalnej, która powinna być prowadzona odpowiedzialnie i zapewniać stabilność fiskalną, oraz prowadzą do napięć fiskalnych stanowiących zagrożenie dla tej stabilności w przyszłości. Rozważania oparto na projekcji zmian demograficznych w krajach UE do 2060 r. przedstawionych w publikacji Komisji Europejskiej The 2015 Ageing Report oraz ostatnim raporcie na temat stabilności fiskalnej Debt Sustainability Monitor 2016.
EN
The article presents the links between demographic changes that cause aging of European Union societies and the situation of public finances in these countries in the medium and long term. It emphasizes that unfavorable demographic trends create challenges for current fiscal policy that should be responsibly and provide fiscal sustainability, and lead to fiscal risks that threaten future stability. Considerations based on the projected demographic change in the EU countries by 2060, presented in the publication of the European Commission The 2015 Aging Report and the latest report on the fiscal sustainability Debt Sustainability Monitor 2016.
PL
W pracy przedstawiono cele i zadania polityki gospodarczej oraz wybrane aspekty prowadzenia tej polityki w krótkim i średnim okresie. Podstawowe znaczenie przy realizacji polityki gospodarczej w krótkim i średnim okresie, czyli tak zwanej polityki makroekonomicznej, mają polityka pieniężna i polityka fiskalna. W związku z tym w pracy zaprezentowano ogólne uwagi na temat wybranej reguły sprzężenia zwrotnego - pewnej postaci reguły Taylora dla polityki pieniężnej i dla polityki fiskalnej.
EN
In this paper we present the objectives and tasks of economic policy and the selected aspects of conduct of this policy in the short and medium term. The basic importance of the execution of economic policy in the short and medium term, the socalled macroeconomic policy, have monetary policy and fiscal policy. Therefore, in the paper we present the selected feedback rule.
PL
W artykule przeprowadzono analizę skuteczności wybranych norm budżetowych stosowanych przez kraje UE w kontekście regulacji zawartych w treści dyrektywy i odpowiednich aktów prawnych. Analizie poddano w ramach doboru celowego piśmiennictwo w tym zakresie. Główne zalecenia prawa Unii Europejskiej dotyczą: statystyki i rachunkowości, prognoz, numerycznych reguł fiskalnych, średniookresowych reguł fiskalnych oraz przejrzystości finansów publicznych. W pracy odpowiedziano na pytanie, czy jedne z tych elementów, tj. reguły fiskalne, mają wpływ na realizacje zdefiniowanych w programach konwergencji i programach stabilności celów fiskalnych.
EN
The article analyzes the effectiveness of selected action sunder taken by EU countries in the context of regulations contained in the directive and relevant legal acts. The analysis was subjected to targeted selection – the literature, in this respect. The main recommendations of European Union law concern: statistics and accounting, forecasts, numerical fiscal rules, medium-term fiscal rules and transparency of public finances. The article indicates whether one of these elements, ie fiscal rules, affect the implementation of fiscal objectives defined in the programs of convergence and stability programs. Qualitative research was based on a descriptive analysis, which will use a rich literature on the subject, mostly foreign, consisting of compact studies, journals, scientific studies, reports of international institutions will serve to solver search problems and achieve set goals.
EN
The main aim of the rules of fiscal policy of European Union is to identify and limit the negative impact of wrong policies of some of the member states on the functioning of the remaining countries of the Eurozone. In order to limit possible threats institutional and legal regulations were put in place in form of Stability and Growth Pact. Its main aim was to discipline the fiscal policies led by the countries of the Eurozone. The debt crisis in the Eurozone proved, that the convergence criteria of the Maastricht Treaty and the Stability and Growth Pact were not sufficient t provide stability of public finances in the counties of the Eurozone. It is thus justified to launch an analysis concerning the debt situation of the Eurozone and its further existence. What is also to be analyzed are the problems resulting from the non-adherence of the countries of Eurozone to the Stability and Growth Pact. The analysis was conducted on the basis of literature study and analysis of statistical data.(original abstract)
EN
In 2016-2019 Poland experienced a major social and fiscal policy shift: new government decreased the statutory retirement age and launched several new social programs, including the sweeping Family 500+ program under which social expenditure on family and children support increased suddenly from 1.5% to nearly 3% of GDP. Moreover, VAT gap reduction policies have been implemented swiftly. The new policy move became highly controversial. Many economists argued that overall it would lead to a significant deterioration of long-term fiscal sustainability. The government argued in turn that the new program was well financed by a complementary policy of VAT gap reduction and saw no risk to country's fiscal sustainability. This paper provides one of the first evidence of the adverse effect of the policy shift on long-term fiscal sustainability. The analysis reveals that fiscal sustainability parameters have deteriorated significantly after 2016. Overall, the estimations presented in the paper show that in the period of 2016-2019 fiscal sustainability parameters may have been the lowest since Poland joined the EU in 2004. While these results should be treated with caution as they draw on very recent time series, the deterioration of Poland's fiscal sustainability raises a pertinent policy question related to country's capacity to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic, in particular in terms of the ability to use standard and non-standard fiscal policy instruments and monetary policy tools in response to the shock.
PL
W latach 2016-2019 Polska doświadczyła dużej zmiany polityki społecznej i fiskalnej: nowy rząd obniżył ustawowy wiek emerytalny i wprowadził kilka nowych programów socjalnych, w tym szeroko zakrojony program "Rodzina 500+", w ramach którego wydatki socjalne na utrzymanie rodziny i dzieci gwałtownie wzrosły z 1,5% do prawie 3% PKB. Ponadto szybko wdrożono politykę zmniejszania luki w podatku VAT. Nowa polityka rządu wzbudziła dużo kontrowersji. Wielu ekonomistów argumentowało, że w konsekwencji może to doprowadzić do znaczącego pogorszenia długookresowej stabilności fiskalnej państwa. Rząd argumentował z kolei, że nowe programy są dobrze zbilansowane dzięki polityce zmniejszania luki w podatku VAT i nie widział zagrożenia dla stabilności fiskalnej kraju. Niniejszy artykuł przedstawia jeden z pierwszych dowodów na negatywny wpływ zmiany polityki rządu na długoterminową stabilność fiskalną państwa. Analiza pokazuje, że parametry stabilności fiskalnej znacznie się pogorszyły po 2016 r. Ogólnie biorąc, szacunki przedstawione w artykule wskazują, że w latach 2016-2019 parametry stabilności fiskalnej mogły być najniższe od czasu przystąpienia Polski do UE w 2004 r. Chociaż wyniki te należy traktować z ostrożnością, ponieważ opierają się na bardzo świeżych szeregach czasowych, pogorszenie stabilności fiskalnej Polski rodzi istotne pytanie polityczne dotyczące zdolności kraju do zareagowania na pandemię COVID-19, w szczególności w zakresie zdolności do wykorzystania standardowych i niestandardowych instrumentów polityki fiskalnej oraz pieniężnej w odpowiedzi na szok.
PL
Celem artykułu jest analiza wpływu reguł fiskalnych, obowiązujących w krajach UE, na ograniczenie deficytu i długu publicznego. Badania dotyczą okresu 2007-2016 i zostały przeprowadzone na podstawie danych pochodzących z baz Eurostatu i Komisji Europejskiej. Opierając się na analizie indeksów reguł fiskalnych (FRI) w państwach członkowskich UE, zauważono, że niemal we wszystkich krajach wartość badanego indeksu wzrosła, jednakże jego wysoki poziom nie zawsze jest dodatnio skorelowany z niskim poziomem długu publicznego. Jednocześnie można wskazać wyraźny związek między wartością FRI i deficytu budżetowego.
EN
The article aims to examine the relationship between the value of the fiscal rules index (FRI) and the level of budget deficit and public debt in the EU Member States. To carry out the study a descriptive method with elements of the analysis of statistical data was used. The analysis was mainly conducted on the basis of literature dedicated to the fiscal policy and numerical fiscal rules. Research was conducted on the basis of the European Commission and Eurostat data set (for years 2007-2016). Review of literature and the experience of European countries show that different types of fiscal rules are not equally effective in reducing the fiscal imbalance, however if wellconstructed they can, along with other budgetary institutions, support measures aiming to reduce the public debt and reduce the fiscal policy pro-cyclicality. Based on the analysis of fiscal indices in the period of 2007-2016 in different EU Member States, it may be concluded that the value of the reviewed index increased in 27 of them. Comparison of the values of the fiscal rule index with the budgetary performance (budget deficit and public debt level) shows that its high level is not evidently correlated with the low level of public debt, with a more visible positive influence on the budget deficit level.
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