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  1. 3 Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)

  2. 3 Slovenský národopis (Slovak Ethnology)

  3. 2 Moderní dějiny: sborník k dějinám 19. a 20. století (Modern History: Studies into 19th and 20th century history)

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  1. 2 2023

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  3. 2 2021

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  1. 2 Kreisslová S.

  2. 2 Nosková J.

  3. 1 Cibulka P.

  4. 1 Eberhardt P.

  5. 1 Elschek K.

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1
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„JAK ŚWIATEM NIE BĘDZIE NIEMIEC POLAKOWI BRATEM?”. O REWIZJI HETEROSTEREOTYPU NIEMCA I AUTOSTEREOTYPU WŚRÓD POLAKÓW MIGRUJĄCYCH DO BERLINA

100%
Szczepaniak-Kroll A.
Studia Migracyjne - Przegląd Polonijny
|
2013
|
vol. 39
|
issue 4(150)
95-117
EN
The article is an analysis of the heterostereotype of a German and the autostereotype of a Pole among Polish migrants living in Berlin. The results are based on qualitative research conducted by the author in Germany between 2009 and 2012. The incentive to undertake this topic was the revival of contacts between Poles and Germans associated with Poland’s accession to the European Union and the opening of borders. Among migrants, the EU accession resulted in the emergence of many beliefs concerning an improvement of the image of Poland and Polish people in the West. This article attempts to verify this hypothesis and determine what is the nature and the character of mutual stereotypes, and what functions they perform.
2

SLOVÁCI, NEMCI A REMESLO NA PRÍKLADE VYBRANÝCH PÍSOMNÝCH PARALELNÝCH ŠTATÚTOV Z 18. STOROČIA

100%
Šmeringaiová P.
Slavica Slovaca
|
2020
|
vol. 55
|
issue 3
499 – 509
EN
The paper focuses on the Slovak-German relations in the specific area of the guild system. This organised structure has been brought to the territory of former Upper Hungary by German guests. The members of guilds were required to follow strict regulations written and confirmed in articles. We present one of the researched parallel slovak-german manuscripts from the State Archive of Banská Bystrica (C-25/6). Its content, the variations of notation based on the chosen examples from the transliteration can show us the view on coexistence of Slovak and nonslavonic ethnicity.
3
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POPULATION TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE KLAIPEDA REGION IN THE 20TH CENTURY (Przemiany narodowosciowe w Kraju Klajpedzkim w XX wieku)

100%
Eberhardt P.
Sprawy Narodowościowe
|
2010
|
issue 37
89-102
EN
The Klaipeda Region is now an integral part of Lithuania. This was not, however, always the case; the region has a strong German history. (Its historical German name was Memelland, while in Lithuanian it was called Klaipedos Krastas.) Until 1525, the Klaipeda Region belonged to the Teutonic Order, but later changed hands several times. Initially, it belonged to the Duchy of Prussia (until 1701; and until 1657 was dependent as a fief of Poland), was later controlled by the Kingdom of Prussia (until 1871), and then finally became part of the German Empire (until 1919). For Germans, the province was a historical part of Eastern Prussia until 1945. For Lithuanians, the Klaipeda Region, as well as the area located along the north-eastern part of East Prussia on the south bank of the Neman River, was known as Little Lithuania (Lithuania Minor). The Lithuanians considered this territory to be their own ethnic land, which was wrongfully subjected to gradual Germanization. Before World War II this area was inhabited by Protestants who spoke Lithuanian or German. The 1920 census lists the territory's population at 150,700, of which 71,000 declared German to be their first language, while 67,000 declared Lithuanian. The article first discusses the historical and political background of events in the Klaipeda Region in the first half of the 20th century. Next the author analyzes in a dynamic approach the demographic and ethnic structure of the population. His attention is later focused on the period of World War II when the province was incorporated into the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the Soviet period, a major part of the local population was expelled to Germany, while the remaining residents were identified as either Lithuanians or Russians such that the province was no longer dominated by the Protestant and German speaking population. The final part of the article deals with the present demographic and national situation. As a result of the postwar political and economic migrations, a majority of the people in the province now identify themselves as Lithuanian and Catholic. Lithuania, owing to the port of Klaipeda, has now an unrestricted access to sea.
4

EIN ISOLIERTES KÖRPERGRAB AUS DEM 1. JH. N. CHR. VOM GERMANISCHEN FÜRSTENSITZ IN ZOHOR, WESTSLOWAKEI

100%
Elschek K.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2021
|
vol. 69
|
issue suppl 2
199 – 206
EN
Skeletal graves from the north regionof the Middle Danube are quite rare, because the cremation burials significantly predominated. In Zohor, beside richly equipped princely skeletal graves, also one isolated female skeletal grave of a 50 – 60 years old woman was excavated. It was found in the settlement area from the 1st c. AD. The equipment of the grave was rather poor than rich: two brooches Almgren 68, a small iron knife, bronze needle und two small ceramic vessels. The median of the absolute 14C dating was about 40 AD.
5
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8/9 MAY 1945 IN THE MEMORY OF GERMANS AND POLES (8/9 maja 1945 roku w pamieci Niemców i Polaków)

100%
Korzeniewski B.
Przegląd Zachodni
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2011
|
issue 1(338)
83-103
EN
The text looks at the ways the date of 8/9 May 1945 is perceived in the memory of Poles and Germans - in the official memory (anniversary celebrations), public memory (press and media) as well as common memory (historical awareness, family memory). The author traces the dimensions between different levels of memory and evolutions of the image of the end of the war in Poland - before and after the breakthrough of 1989, and in Germany - before and after reunification.
6

ŠPECIFICKÉ ČRTY NEMECKÉHO NÁREČIA HAUERLANDU, JEHO SÚČASNÝ STAV A PERSPEKTÍVY

100%
Molnárová A.
Etnologické rozpravy (Ethnological Disputes)
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2023
|
vol. 30
|
issue 1
23 - 39
XX
For centuries, Germans have been a natural part of the demographic structure in our territory. The beginnings of German settlement date back to the 11th century and relate to the development of mining towns and the extraction of mineral resources in Upper Hungary. The Germans significantly enriched cultural, social, and economic life. Despite many external influences, they have retained their specific culture, way of life and mother tongue for centuries. It is the specifics of the German dialect on the territory of Slovakia that are the subject of the present paper. In the introduction, a brief history of the development of German settlement in Upper Hungary is presented. The intention of the paper is to describe and characterize the dialect of the northern part of Hauerland from the phonetic and phonological point of view of segmental phenomena of vocalism and consonantism. We are concerned with the geographical delimitation of the locality we are studying. Subsequently, we present information on the dialect specifics in selected localities of the northern part of the Hauerland language island, based on available information print and electronic sources, as well as on our own field research. In the conclusion of the paper, we characterize the current state of the use of the German dialect in the villages of Malinová, Tužina and in the town of Nitrianske Pravno. The theoretical information is supplemented by the statements obtained from informants during the field research.
7

“FAMILY SILVER” OR ARTEFACTS (IN) MEMORIES OF FORCIBLY DISPLACED GERMANS

88%
Kreisslová S., Nosková J.
Slovenský národopis (Slovak Ethnology)
|
2019
|
vol. 67
|
issue 2
165 – 184
EN
The study deals with the transmission of family memory in three three-generation families of Germans forcibly displaced from Czechoslovakia, in which the oldest generation, the so-called generation of experience, actually experienced the migration movement after the end of World War II. In the study, the family is seen as a specific social framework in which the past is retrieved. Generations are characterized in a biological sequence, with only the oldest “generation of experience” defined by Karl Mannheim. The research of generational family memory focuses on the actor’s reception through an analysis and interpretation of narrative and oral-history interviews with representatives of generations while exploring the way family memory is mediated. Specifically, the authors inquire into the role the memory media play in their materialised form, i.e. artefacts that act as an impulse and source of remembrance narrative, in the process of generational transmission of memories in families. The focus here is on remembrance narratives related to the forced displacement, which thematise material artefacts, with the focus being not only on what artefacts there are in connection with the recollection of this historical process and what stories are related to them, but also the effort to uncover the meaning and the function of these artefacts during family remembrance.
8

GERMÁNI PRI CLASTIDIU (222 PRED N. L.) A V SPARTAKOVOM POVSTANÍ (73 – 71 PRED N. L.)

88%
Habaj M.
Studia Historica Nitriensia
|
2018
|
vol. 22
|
issue 2
277 – 291
EN
Traditionally, the passages of Posidonius or Caesar are considered to be the first mention of the Germans in the ancient literature. But, besides these well-known texts, there are still a few references that have been judged in the past, at least by some authors, that they might be authentic and precede Caesar's expedition to Gaul and his testimony about the Germans. The study discusses two of these references, the first is known inscription from Fasti triumphales dated to 222 BC and the other is a tradition that preserves the Germans in the Spartacus' army. The article not only sums up the current positions to the two, but also brings a few observations of its own.
9

SOCIÁLNĚ HISTORICKÉ KONTEXTY ČESKÉHO ANTISEMITISMU A ANTINĚMECTVÍ PO VZNIKU ČESKOSLOVENSKÉ REPUBLIKY A JEJICH ODRAZ V DOBOVÉ KARIKATUŘE

88%
Soukupová B.
Slovenský národopis (Slovak Ethnology)
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2019
|
vol. 67
|
issue 1
5 - 21
EN
The Czechoslovak Republic was created as the national state of the Czechs and Slovaks. Although it was based on the ethnic principle, the new state simultaneously assured relatively extensive rights for its national and religious minorities; in the Czech lands primarily for Czech Germans and the structured Jewish minority (in the new state, Jews could claim Jewish nationality and religion, or only Jewish religion).Although the Jewish minority was ideologically and politically heterogeneous and absolutely loyal to the state, it repeatedly became, not for the first time historically, the target of largely socially and ethnically motivated attacks after the foundation of the Republic. However, their nature was escalated even more by the difficult social conditions following World War I and the generally traumatic experience of the unexpected world war. Contemporary journalism helped disseminate the image of Jews as the main culprits who had caused the world war and were responsible for the general post-war destabilisation and shortages, Jews as non-state building residents of the republic, disloyal, pro-German orientated asocial elements, intensified by the image of Jewish refugees from Galicia and Bukovina, justly or unjustly accused of operating chain businesses. Contemporary journalism also emphasised the traditional image of Czech Germans as the ancient enemy of the Czech nation, currently accused of starting World War I. The fact that most Czech Germans were truly disloyal citizens of the new state after the foundation of the republic (and again in the 1930s) was balanced by the efforts of the Czechoslovak government to “win the Germans over for the new state” and therefore controlled the suppression of anti-German sentiments which were often linked to anti-Jewish sentiments. The text questions the significance of the image of the national enemy at a time in history that saw the destabilisation of existing socio-political relations, undoubtedly represented by the dissolution of the monarchy and the rise of new national states in Central Europe and their contemporary visualisation.
10
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GERMANS OF ODESSA: FROM A PRIVILEGED STATUS TO HUMILIATION (Niemcy Odessy: od uprzywilejowania do upodlenia)

88%
Tyszka S.
Sprawy Narodowościowe
|
2010
|
issue 37
103-119
EN
In this work the history of German minority in the Ukrainian city of Odessa has been presented from the beginning of the 18 th century till the present times. An important aspect of this work is to show the two dimensions of German colonization of Ukrainian territories which was concurrently inhabited by the representatives of German intelligence and German entrepreneurs in the cities, as well as by German peasants in the country. As this work shows the history of Germans in Ukraine began with being granted a privileged status and finished with losing it and being dispossessed during the First and Second World Wars. The paper starts with a brief description of the German nation and its expansion to the East. Then the history of the German colonization of Odessa is presented including the religious life of this group, the role Germans played in the economy of the city and its surroundings. After that attention is focused on the damage inflicted to the community during two world wars which led to the fact that Germans were deprived of their rights and marginalized. The last section concentrates on the present situation of German minority in Odessa.
11
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Deutsche Agrarbank für Österreich, hospodářský instrument německého politického agrarismu v českých zemích (1912–1919)

88%
Kubu E., Novotny J., Sousa J.
Moderní dějiny: sborník k dějinám 19. a 20. století (Modern History: Studies into 19th and 20th century history)
|
2010
|
vol. 18
|
issue 2
1-22
EN
Deutsche Agrarbank für Oesterreich started its business operations in 1912. The bank reflected the political and economic ambitions of the Deutsche Agrarpartei in Boehmen (German Agrarian Party in Bohemia) that wanted to expand to all Cisleithania. The bank's goals were based on the ideology of agrarianism requiring that the large financial amounts available in the country should be used for the development of rural areas and that their use by other social groups of capitalist business should be prevented. Deutsche Agrarbank für Oesterreich had only two years' time to implement its business plans. During the First World War the bank followed the practice of the other German national banks, which by subscribing war loans demonstrated their belief in the victory of the Central Powers - Germany and Austro-Hungary. The bank could only slowly and with much difficulty recover from the problems caused by the war economy and postwar depression. Although it obtained help from the Czechoslovak State to restore its profitability, as well as some support from Germany and ultimately also from the General Bank Recovery Fund, it remained on the brink of failure during the whole period of time between the two world wars.
12

VYPRÁVĚNÁ MIGRACE. VZPOMÍNKY NA POVÁLEČNOU NUCENOU MIGRACI NĚMECKY HOVOŘÍCÍCH OBYVATEL Z ČESKÝCH ZEMÍ

88%
Kreisslová S., Nosková J.
Slovenský národopis (Slovak Ethnology)
|
2022
|
vol. 70
|
issue 1
48 - 68
EN
The study focuses on the forced displacement of the German population from the Czech lands between May 1945 and the end of 1946, which meant the departure of almost three million Germans. This migration had a profound impact both on the lives of the individuals who participated in it and on German society. Forced migration after the Second World War is not only an integral part of the communicative memory of many Germans, but also a part of cultural memory and the subject of politics of memory today. In this study, we draw on oral history interviews with the so-called ‘Erlebnisgeneration’, i.e. persons who experienced forced displacement as children or young adults. The object of the analysis are narratives related to forced displacement; we ask in what ways this migration is narrated, what narrative strategies and means individual narrators choose when they talk about this event, and whether they create certain narrative patterns. Our focus is on the themes, structures, and intentions of the narrative representations of ‘expulsion’. We attempt to show how male and female narrators deal with the traumatic experience and how they attempt to integrate and gain recognition from others. We observe these issues in the context of theories of collective trauma and are inspired by the analytical approach of grounded theory.
13

CELTS – THE GERMANS – THE SLAVS. ON THE TOPIC OF ETHNICITY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES OF PROTOHISTORICAL TRIBES

88%
Šalkovský P.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2021
|
vol. 69
|
issue suppl 2
479 - 485
EN
The article deals with the capabilities of archaeology and its cooperative scientific disciplines in the study of expressions of protohistorical collective identities’ ethnicity which are rather limited. Nowadays, we have considerable problems with ethnicity of a large group of tribes, the main bearers of the LaTène culture, although considerably numerous historical, linguistic, epigraphic, palaeographic, iconographic and other sources are also available here. Despite this fact, we know that the Celtic tribes were aware of their related identity. Although not all LaTène culture bearers were necessarily Celts, most of them were; at the same time, not all Celtic tribes maintained this culture after being included into the Antique world. We know that also tribes called Germanic were aware of their related identity. It is documented by the facts that they all spoke mutually understandable languages originating from Proto-German and shared very close mythology. Material culture of individual Germanic tribes is rather significant and, in many cases, typical of a tribe; however, in contact with the Roman Empire and the Huns, mainly their elites gave up their tribal and ethnic identity. A large group of tribes was called Sclavini, Anti, Veneti by antique authors of the 6th c. and documented under their own names – Slovene, slovenski narod, slovensko plemja since the 9th c., although they simultaneously used numerous tribal or regional names. Archaeologically, these oldest Slavs are represented by three related cultures – Prague, Penkovka and Koločin, which are interpreted as historically known Sclaveni, Antes and Veneti, from which individual branches of the Slavs developed.
14

FORMATION OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA (1918) AND THE GERMAN POPULATION OF SPIŠ. IDEAS AND REALITY

88%
Švorc P.
Historický časopis (Historical Journal)
|
2022
|
vol. 70
|
issue 5
887–913
EN
The relationship of Spiš Germans to the ČSR evolved. In the first years of its existence, it was, as a rule, dismissive. Germans had a hard time coming to terms with Slovaks becoming members of city and village councils; they refused to communicate in the new official language and sabotaged many a governmental regulation. In the town Veľká, the local German adherents of the Evangelic faith even refused for Slovak services to be held in their church; they wanted to divide the town of Spišská Belá into a Slovak and a German part, etc. The older, and partially middle, generation of Spiš Germans did not accept the ČSR during the entire interwar period. It was reflected in the activities of the political party Zipser Deutsche Partei. The Czechoslovak Republic was only accepted later on by the young generation, politically engaged in the Karpathendeutsche Partei. This generation, nevertheless, also took a long time to accept Slovaks and Rusyns as equals to the German inhabitants of Spiš.
15
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DIE SPÄTANTIKE QUADISCHE RESIDENZ IN CÍFER-PÁC . REKONSTRUKTION DER BAUENTWICKLUNG

88%
Varsik  V.
Študijné zvesti
|
2023
|
vol. 70
|
issue 1
193 – 212
EN
In the 4th c., a princely residence was built on the outskirts of the Germanic settlement in Cífer-Pác (SW Slovakia). It consists of a quadrangular enclosure with two stone and several wooden buildings. The residence was built in the spirit of Roman building traditions according to a carefully thought-out plan, using Roman building technologies and Roman building materials. It served the needs of the local Germanic chieftain and is an eloquent testimony to the peaceful Roman-Germanic relations at the end of Antiquity. The article summarizes the development of the residence with its three building phases and offers architectural reconstructions of its appearance.
16

IMAGINING THE OTHER: NARRATIVES ON GERMANS AND HUNGARIANS IN INTERWAR HISTORY TEXTBOOKS PUBLISHED IN SLOVAKIA

75%
Otčenášová S.
Človek a spoločnosť. Internetový časopis pre pôvodné teoretické a výskumné štúdie z oblasti spoločenských vied
|
2017
|
vol. 20
|
issue 2
-
EN
This article seeks to explore the ways of interpreting the historical role of Germans and Hungarians in history textbooks used in primary and secondary schools in Slovakia in the interwar period, from 1918 until 1939. Historical narratives presented in school history textbooks contribute, alongside the family, media and public life, and rituals, to forming the way young people perceive the world around them. They are also one of the main tools for the social production of stereotypes of the Other. Fearing the Other is widespread in present-day Slovakia, and although the reason for this situation has been ascribed to the recent economic and current refugee crises, this paper argues that negative responses to the Other are also partially a by-product of the ethnocentric and etatist character of history education. The presented research is based on the study of stereotypes – generally shared impressions, images, or thoughts existing within certain groups of people about the character of a particular group of people and their representations. The article seeks to prove that the motivations behind state-produced prejudices against the members of other nations are driven by the need to present one’s own group (the nation) superior to the Other, which has been a reaction to the competition between the two groups, economic frustration or social crises. The article employs the techniques of critical discourse analysis.
17

DAS GERMANISCHE GRÄBERFELD VON „DUNAJSKÁ STREDA“

75%
Prohászka P.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2014
|
vol. 62
|
issue 1
167 – 198
EN
The article deals with the German and Roman finds from the cemetery of Dunajská Streda. Some finds are known only from the books by J. Eisner and E. Beninger. According to Beninger these finds are from two different localities. The local pharmacist’s, Iván László’s letter with some drawings of the finds dug in 1894 helps us to locate the cemetery and to clarify its chronology. Based on this letter the cemetery was in the confines of Malé Dvorníky, and not in Dunajská Streda. Iván László described seven graves (urn and skeleton graves as well) together with the grave-goods in his letter. Ceramic pots and urns, Roman and German brooches, a Roman bronze vessel, and other objects are amongst the drawn finds. The earliest finds belong to the periods B1b and B1c. These are an Almgren 45 iron brooch, an Almgren 68 strong profiled brooch, and a fragment of an Almgren 236 brooch. To the periods B1c and B2 belong some ceramic urns, an Eggers 155 bronze casserole, a trumpet brooch, an Almgren V/2 iron brooch, and strap mountings from drinking-horns. A bowl, a Barbarian imitation of a ‘Faltenbecher’, and two urns are from the 3rd century (period C2). To the C3 period belong a ceramic pottery, a bowl, a bead, and an Almgren group VI brooch. On the basis of the grave-goods the cemetery was opened in the first half of the 1st cent. A. D. and was used to the mid-2nd cent. A. D. It was reopened in the 3rd cent. A part of the urn and skeleton graves are certainly from the early Roman period, but some of the graves are burials from the 3rd – 4th cent. From the point of view of the burial rituals and the finds the cemetery of “Dunajská Streda”/Malé Dvorníky is related to the cemeteries of South-West Slovakia (Abrahám, Kostolná pri Dunaji, Sládkovičovo), but only the cemetery of “Dunajská Streda”/Malé Dvorníky was reopened in the late Roman period. This cemetery was used by the Quadi, a smaller Germanic tribe settled on the Žitný ostrov already in the early of the 1st cent. A. D.
18
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DURYCHOVA NOVELA „BOŽÍ DUHA“ VO FILMOVOM SPRACOVANÍ

75%
Gallik J., Vargová Z.
World Literature Studies
|
2019
|
vol. 11
|
issue 3
28 – 41
EN
The displacement of Germans from Czechoslovakia after the end of World War II is a tragic event that greatly affected many people’s lives. The treatment of this subject in Czech literature took various forms, ranging from the schematically modelled literature of socialist realism, which mainly perceived the displacement of Germans as an act of righteous retaliation for the horrors of war caused by German fascists, to existentially tuned works that perceived this event on the basis of the deeper causes of misunderstanding and hostility of both nations. As the philosopher Jan Patočka states in the epilogue (1991) to Jaroslav Durych’s novel God’s Rainbow, the author who created a great song of regret which conditioned and prepared hope for the spiritual reconciliation of the Czech and German nation was finally found. The merit of the comparison of Durych’s novel and its television adaptation from 2007 (by director and screenwriter Jiří Svoboda) is mainly the question whether the adaptation puts only the tragic nature of the theme of the displacement of Germans from the Czech border at the forefront or if it tries to display also the difficult platform of the Baroque phenomenon (e. g. focusing on space or characters). In Durych’s work, including God’s Rainbow, specifically in the language, composition, stylistic construction, motifs, symbols or function of detail, there is an evidence of enhancing the Baroque perception of reality.
19
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Život dětí v obcích bývalého jazykového ostrůvku na Vyškovsku

75%
Pechova J.
Národopisná revue (Journal of Ethnology)
|
2009
|
vol. 19
|
issue 1
32-45
EN
The paper deals with the life of children in eight former German villages in the Vyskovsko Region, since the end of the 19th century until the forced transfer in 1946. The children grew up within the environment that put great stress on traditions, catholic religion and definition and safeguarding of their German identity against the Czech surroundings, which was demonstrated by wearing the local folk costumes and surviving of the ancient dialect and many habits. The upbringing in families, at school or in clubs was aimed at the support of German national feeling. The contacts with the Czech children were minimal in the so-called upper language island; the Czech families became assimilated, or they were not integrated into the village collective. The Czech minority schools founded in the German villages after 1918, especially the lower secondary school in Kucerov (1926), incurred displeasure and became a source of quarrels. The more frequent contacts between the Czech and the German children can be seen in the ethnically mixed and bilingual environment of the so-called lower language island.
20

OSLAVY DAI V ROKU 1937 A SNAHY O VYUŽÍVANIE NÁRODNOSTNÝCH MENŠÍN V ČSR NEMECKOM A MAĎARSKOM NA POLITICKÉ CIELE

75%
Vrábel F.
Studia Politica Slovaca: časopis pre politické vedy, najnovšie politické dejiny a medzinárodné vzťahy
|
2011
|
vol. 4
|
issue 1
37 – 53
EN
The article deals with the subject of national minorities in interwar Europe, and the possibilities and efforts to use and misuse them for political ends. It briefly describes the establishment and development of an institution for monitoring the German minorities around the world - Das Deutsche Ausland-Institut (DAI) in Stuttgart - its organization, tasks and methods of operation. Based on the speakers’ addresses during the celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the foundation of the Institute held in Stuttgart in August 1937, the author compares the attitudes of a representative and leader of the German minority in Czechoslovakia (Henlein) with the attitudes and opinions of a representative of the Nazi regime (Frick). In the conclusion, the author provides information on some of the measures taken by the Czechoslovak government between February and April 1937 that were aimed to ensure equitable minority policy and good relations between the Czechoslovak authorities and national minorities in the area of public works and civil engineering, social and health care, recruitment into the civil service, language needs of national minorities, educational support, school organization and self-government.
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