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Kilka uwag dotyczących konsekwencji gwałtu wojennego na przykładzie Bośni i Hercegowiny

100%
Czeszejko-Sochacka K.
|
2022
|
vol. 20
|
issue 1
35-46
PL
The civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina2 was one of the bloodiest armed conflicts after the end of the Second World War. Despite the passage of years, it is still a painful part of reality for a large group of the country's population. During the war, human rights were violated in the form of ethnic cleansing, murders, and so-called genocidal rapes. Women who were raped face social stigma to this day. According to conservative estimates, approx. 4000 children were born as a result of rapes. Today, the adult generation of "children of shame" experiences social ostracism in almost all spheres of life. Their situation is affected by the fact that they are not recognized as "victims of war" under the current regulations. This situation is slowly beginning to change, but it is a long-term process that requires intensified efforts not only in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in the international arena.
EN
Wojna domowa w Bośni i Hercegowinie była jednym z najkrwawszych konfliktów zbrojnych po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. Mimo upływu lat nadal jest bolesnym elementem rzeczywistości dla dużej części mieszkańców tego kraju. W czasie wojny dochodziło do łamania praw człowieka w postaci czystek etnicznych, mordów i tzw. ludobójczych gwałtów. Zgwałcone kobiety do dziś spotykają się z napiętnowaniem społecznym. Według ostrożnych szacunków w wyniku gwałtów urodziło się ok. 4000 dzieci. Dziś dorosłe pokolenie „dzieci wstydu” doświadcza ostracyzmu społecznego w niemal wszystkich sferach życia. Na ich sytuację wpływa fakt, że w świetle obowiązujących przepisów nie są uznawani za „ofiary wojny”. Sytuacja ta powoli zaczyna się zmieniać, ale jest to proces długotrwały, wymagający wzmożonych wysiłków nie tylko w Bośni i Hercegowinie, ale także na arenie międzynarodowej.
2

Overall control test to internationalize an armed conflict

99%
Szpak A.
Studia Prawnicze
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2011
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issue 1(187)
7-32
EN
The article presents so called overall control test to internationalize an internal armed conflict adopted in the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) jurisprudence. This test is used in order to hold an individual responsible for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949. The article begins with the creation and jurisdiction of the ICTY. The overall control test is presented by invoking and analyzing representative judgments of the ICTY such as the Tadić case (Trial Chamber 1997 and Appeals Chamber 1999), the Aleksovski case (Appeals Chamber 200), the Blaskić case (Trial Chamber 2000) as well as the Kordić and Cerkez case (Trial Chamber 2001 and Appeals Chamber 2004). The Tadić case is also compared to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) Nicaragua case of 1986 where the ICJ used effective control test. The ICTY conclusions have been strongly criticized among the representatives of Polish and world doctrine (inter alia by W. Czapliński, T. Meron, M. P. Scharf, M. Sassoli and L. Olsen). Their views are included. The final remarks pertain to the ICJ judgment in the Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro case of 2007 where the ICJ in a way tried to reconcile two opposite legal views stating that the overall control test from the Tadić case was adopted to different purpose (namely to define the nature on an armed conflict and when found to be an international one to hold an individual responsible for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949) whereas the effective control test was created in order to hold a State responsible. In this case the ICJ decided to use the effective control test.
3
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Mental and material elements of genocide

85%
Gagro S. F.
The Lawyer Quarterly
|
2021
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vol. 11
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issue 1
1-18
EN
The crime of genocide is one of the most severe crimes. Its commission always takes time, requires planning, and results in substantial human sacrifices. It is never a single or accidental act but always conscious and deliberate. The commitment of genocide requires performing one of the acts (actus reus) enumerated in the 1948 Genocide Convention and perpetrated specifically against the members of a protected group, which represents the material element of the crime. However, the element that makes genocide one of the worst crimes ever known to humankind is the perpetrator’s special intention of destroying a protected group – the mental element of the crime, i.e., dolus specialis, whose complexity and severity has been confirmed before the international criminal ad hoc tribunals and the ICJ.
4
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Koncepce zločinu genocidia a ozbrojený konflikt na Ukrajině

80%
Mrázek J.
Právník. Teoretický časopis pro otázky státu a práva (The Lawyer - Scientific Review for Problems of State and Law)
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2023
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vol. 162
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issue 3
221-244
EN
The main purpose of this study is to analyse mutual allegation of genocide in the armed conflict in Ukraine under the 1948 Convention on Genocide and indication of provisional measures in this case (Ukraine v. Russian Federation). Other ICJ cases related to Article IX of the Convention and indication of preliminary measures are also mentioned, including by the ICJ refused allegation of genocide, claimed by the FRY in connection with the NATO bombings since 24 March 1999 or allegation from Bosna and Hercegovina against former Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) in 1993, the jurisdiction of the ICTR in the crime of genocide and other cases. This study discusses in brief history and definition of genocide, the problems of its interpretation and reservations to the convention or criticizes shortcomings in the genocide definition and prosecution. Genocide as an antinomous crime of crimes against humanity requires for its existence two constitutive elements, resting in the objective and subjective factors (actus reus and mens rea). Genocide is also an international crime under international customary law and represents a peremptory norm (jus cogens) of international law. This crime has been incorporated e.g. in the Rome Statute of the ICC. Besides individual criminal responsibility the rules of State responsibility apply for crimes of genocide and other internationaly wrongful acts.
CS
Hlavním cílem článku je analýza vzájemných obvinění ze spáchání genocidy za ozbrojeného konfliktu na Ukrajině na základě Úmluvy o genocidiu z roku 1948 a vydání předběžných opatření MSD v dané kauze (Ukrajina v. Ruská federace). Jiné kauzy vztahující se k článku IX Úmluvy a přijetí předběžných opatření jsou rovněž zmíněny, včetně odmítnutí MSD přijmout předběžná opatření v souvislosti s bombardováním FRJ silami NATO po 24. březnu 1999 nebo obvinění Jugoslávie (Srbsko a Černá Hora) ze strany Bosny a Hercegoviny v roce 1993, jurisdikce ICTR nad zločiny genocidia a dalších kauz. Článek ve stručnosti pojednává o historii a definování genocidy, problémech její interpretace a výhrad k Úmluvě nebo o některých nedostatcích definice a trestního postihu. Genocida je autonomním zločinem mezi zločiny proti lidskosti, který ke svému vzniku vyžaduje dva konstitutivní prvky, spočívající na existenci objektivního a zejména subjektivního faktoru (actus reus a mens rea). Genocida je též zločinem podle mezinárodního obyčejového práva a představuje imperativní normy (jus cogens) mezinárodního práva. Tento zločin byl např. zakotven i v Římském statutu Mezinárodního trestního soudu (ICC). Vedle individuální trestní odpovědnosti existuje za spáchání genocidy a jiných mezinárodně protiprávních činů i odpovědnost států.
5
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Współczesny wymiar zbrodni ludobójstwa

57%
Wierczyńska K.
Studia Socjologiczno-Polityczne. Seria Nowa
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2015
|
vol. 04(2)
31-46
PL
Genocide was defined in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and on normative grounds it was not subject to any amendments. Nevertheless, it was interpreted by different courts and tribunals which exercise the jurisdiction in the context of this crime. The courts defined the notions of the “protected group”, “to destroy the group”, “to destroy in whole”, and so on. After almost seventy years of its adoption, the Convention is quite a lively document with timeless value, and only constant recalling of the cultural genocide by the domestic courts reiterates that this crime left outside the Convention still needs its place in binding international law.
6
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Amendment to the act on civilian victims of war and the legal situation of children of war rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina

57%
Czeszejko-Sochacka K.
Polityka i Społeczeństwo
|
2023
|
vol. 21
|
issue 1
92-105
PL
War rape is a phenomenon that occurs in almost every armed conflict. The circle of victims includes not only the persons directly affected by this crime, but also their next of kin. Unwanted pregnancies as a result of wartime rape result in children who, from the moment they are born, are treated as inferior persons. Apart from marginal cases, the internal laws of individual states do not grant them any protection or compensation. For some time now, however, a change in this direction has been evident on the international stage. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the first European country which has responded to these calls and has taken steps to change the status of children from war rape.
EN
Gwałty wojenne są zjawiskiem występującym niemal w każdym konflikcie zbrojnym. Krąg osób pokrzywdzonych obejmuje przy tym nie tylko osoby bezpośrednio dotknięte tym przestępstwem, ale także ich osoby najbliższe. Z niechcianych ciąż będących wynikiem wojennych gwałtów rodzą się dzieci, które od momentu swojego przyjścia na świat są traktowane, jako osoby gorszej kategorii. Poza marginalnymi przypadkami, prawodawstwa wewnętrzne poszczególnych państw, nie przyznają im żadnej ochrony, ani odszkodowań. Od pewnego jednak czasu na arenie międzynarodowej widać zmianę tego kierunku. Bośnia i Hercegowina jest pierwszym europejskim krajem, które odpowiedziało na te wezwania i poczyniło kroki zmierzające do zmiany statusu dzieci z wojennych gwałtów.
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