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THE DEVELOPMENT OF METALLURGY IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND IN THE YEARS 1870-1914 (Rozwoj hutnictwa w Królestwie Polskim w latach 1870-1914)

100%

Kowalczyk R.

Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej

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2009

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vol. 57

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issue 3-4

427-448

EN

The development of metallurgy in the Kingdom of Poland was dependent on Russian customs policy. Due to Russia's defeat in the Crimean War the Russian government, trying to facilitate the development of railways, decided to introduce the progressive liberalization of tariffs. The liberal era, started by the Minister of Finance Mikhail Reitern, saw the Russian market flooded with ironware imported from Western Europe. Metallurgy had no chance to develop. The only survives were producers from Swietokrzyski Okreg Przemyslowy (henceforth SOP) (Swietokrzyski Industrial Region). They survived on the market thanks to local demand, since the railway network was poorly developed and the cost of transport was very high. The situation changed radically in 1877. The system of privileged railway concessions introduced in Russia during the liberal era proved to be a heavy charge for the budget. Additionally, its debts grew after the outbreak of Russian-Turkish war. Consequently, Russia changed its economic doctrine and introduced the so-called 'golden duties'. After 1877 in the Kingdom of Poland the most profitable branch of metallurgy was steel production. It grew from 5,138 tons do 310,447 tons in the years 1878-1910. The most significant producers of steel were initially: the French company 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieries de Huta Bankowa and Stalownia Warszawska' (its shareholders were: 'Tow. Akc. Starachowickich Zakladow Gorniczych, Tow. Akc. Przemyslowe Zakladow Mechanicznych i Gorniczych Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein' and the German investor from Ruhrort in the Ruhr 'Rheinische Stahlwerke A.G.)'. Then there were German firms 'Vereinigte Königs-und Laurahütte A. G. für Bergbau und Hüttenbetrieb' - Huta 'Katarzyna', 'Milowizer Eisenwerk A. G.' 'Huta Aleksander', the 'Czestochowa' steelworks, belonging to the German concern 'Oberschlesische Eisenindustrie A. G.' and the 'Zawiercie' steelworks belonging to 'Oberschlesische Eisenbahn-Bedarfs A. G.' As a result, in 1910 75.94 % of steel was produced in steelworks controlled by foreign investors; 47.23 % of the output came from German and 28.71 % from French companies. The production of iron and ironware before the 1880s was mostly based on import. In the 1870s iron was produced by private and state-owned ironworks of the SOP; in 1876 their output was 17,700 tons. The year 1881 was a turning point for this branch of industry. The Russian government abolished the duty-free import quota on iron and raised customs duties for imported ironware. This attracted German investors to the Kingom of Poland. In 1910 German-controlled ironworks located in the Sosnowiecko-Czestochowski Okreg Przemyslowy (henceforth S-COP)(Sosnowiec-Czestochowa Industrial Region) dominated in the production of iron and ironware: out of the 25,353 tons of total output 83.55 % came from ironworks belonging to German investors. Before the 1880s foreign companies did not smelt pig iron in the Kingdom, since its import was cost-effective. In 1876 31,000 tons of pig iron were produced in the private and state-owned companies of the SOP. In 1880 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieries de Huta Bankowa' started to smelt pig iron in a new blast furnace shop. But it was only after the import tariff on pig iron was raised again in 1887 that most German investors decided to introduce a full production cycle in their ironworks. In 1890 127,300 tons of pig iron were smelted, 60.49% of which in ironworks belonging to foreign investors (47.74% in French and 12.75% in German ones). In 1913 80.80% of pig iron was produced by foreign companies, 77.88% of which was smelted in S-COP. The production of zinc was dominated by foreign companies already in the 1860s. This branch of metallurgy was first invested into by a German businessman from Upper Silesia, Gustaw von Kramst. In 1877 his plants smelted 60.10% of zinc from calamine ores out of the total output of the Kingom, amounting to 4,100 tons. The situation changed in 1890, when the assets of Kramst's company ('Tow. gorniczo-przemyslowe von Kramsta') were taken over by the French-controlled company 'Towarzystwo kopaln i zakladow hutniczych Sosnowieckich'. At the same time, the Russian government leased the state-owned zinc plants to the Russian company called 'Dzierzawcy rzadowych zakladow gorniczych w Krolestwie Polskim'. Due to French and Russian investments the production of zinc in the years 1891-1896 grew from 3,700 to 6,300 tons, but a real breakthrough in this branch came in 1897, when the assets of the bankrut company 'Dzierzawcy rzadowych zakladow gorniczych w Krolestwie Polskim' were taken over by the French investor 'Tow. Francusko-Rosyjskie' affiliated with 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieres de Huta Bankowa'. Tow. Francusko-Rosyjskie' invested significant capital in the development of zinc production and in 1913 their plants smelted 60.20 % of the zinc produced in the Kingom, as compared with 39.80% smelted by the plants owned by 'Tow. kopaln i zakladow hutniczych Sosnowieckich'. Zinc production grew from 5,900 to 8,100 tons in the years 1897-1913.

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HEALTH RESORTS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH C. (Siec uzdrowisk w Królestwie Polskim i zachodnich guberniach Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego)

100%

Mazur E.

Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej

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2008

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vol. 56

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issue 1

31-44

EN

Health resorts in the Kingdom of Poland have not been investigated by historians so far; they have mostly drawn the attention of balneologists and climatologists. For a historian of material culture their most interesting aspect is the everyday life of the patients, who divided their time between treatment and entertainment, and the resort infrastructure: sanatoria, ballrooms, concert halls, promenades, pump rooms, parks, beauty spots. Those issues are overlooked in the contemporary literature of the subject. What places were considered health resorts at that time? Dr Henryk Dobrzycki, a physician working in a sanatorium in Slawut, defined health resorts as: '1. mineral waters and places where bathing in mineral springs is applied, 2. sea-bathing and climate treatment centres..., 3. all the so-called natural medicine establishments, where they apply kumis treatment, hydropathy, electricity, diet treatment etc. To those three we should add another group, namely summer resorts (the German Sommerfrische), which are gradually turning into health resorts, gathering a number of sick visitors seeking treatment in addition to healthy ones.' Dobrzycki argued that it was necessary to introduce special regulations for health resorts. Due to his job and interests he visited many health resorts in the Kingdom of Poland and the neighbouring provinces of the Russian Empire. On the basis of his observations he prepared a draft of sanitary regulations to be implemented in health resorts and a questionnaire on the standard of living in health resorts. Answers were collected in sixteen health resorts. The resorts were divided into three groups, the first one comprising places famous for mineral waters (Birsztany, Busko, Ciechocinek, Druskienniki, Slawinek, Solec, Szepetówka). The second group included resorts with facilities for specialized treatment, e.g hydropathy (Grodzisk, Naleczów, Nowe Miasto, Ojców). The third group consisted of places offering treatment through diet and climate conditions (Czarniecka Góra, Inowlódz, Otwock, Pohulanka and Slawuta). A survey of health resorts and climate treatment centres in the Kingdom of Poland and the western provinces of the Russian Empire reveals that they were treated first of all as business enterprises and expected to bring in profits. Some sanatoria were privately-owned, some were state-owned, some were managed by joint-stock companies. Such a mixed system produced certain results. First, sanatoria and climate treatment centres, unlike hospitals, were available to patients from various regions. Second, depending on the standard, they tried to attract customers from different social strata. Third, at the end of the 19th c. a closer cooperation was established between the doctors from the Kingdom and from Austrian-occupied Galicia, who saw health resorts not only as business enterprises, but also as a chance for medical research and intellectual exchange, consolidating professionals from different parts of the partitioned Poland without the interference of the occupants. Visiting health resorts was considered to have a patriotic dimension, as it gave people an opportunity to discover the beauties of Poland and to integrate with visitors from all over the divided country.

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Pieniądz „Nowej Polski” księdza Piotra Ściegiennego. Rewolucje a pieniądz w XVIII i XIX wieku

80%

Krzysztof F.

Białostockie Teki Historyczne

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2013

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vol. 11

83-94

EN

Researchers have been working on the topic of the XIX century Polish currency for decades now. They have been interested in both notes and coins. The complicated fate of Poland – which either did not exist on the map of Europe of that period or was shown as a quasi-state of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815), the Kingdom of Poland (1815–1830) – till the November Uprising, the episode of the Free City of Cracow (1815–1846) and later as partition zones – was reﬂected in notes and coins. Those issued during Polish national uprisings played a special role. They inﬂuenced attempts to introduce and restitute currencies by state authorities that were then coming into being. This ideological trend includes the project of establishing currency for “New Poland” by the conspirator, socialist-utopist Rev. Piotr Ściegienny (1801–1890). It is worth mentioning that he was not only the hero of uprising or national liberation addresses, but also the author of a unique at that time (mid-XIX c.) vision of social, religious, economic changes in the Polish society. The face values of the designed coins were to be similar to those used earlier in the territory of the Kingdom of Poland. Due to the disintegration of the organization “Związek Chłopski” and lack of a possibility of starting a new uprising, Piotr Ściegienny’s currency for the utopian “New Poland” was never issued.

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EVERYDAY LIFE IN SANATORIUMS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE (Siec uzdrowisk w Koólestwie Polskim i zachodnich guberniach Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego)

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Mazur E.

Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej

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2008

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vol. 56

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issue 2

169-186

EN

The promotion of local health resorts and climate treatment centres undertaken by balneologists required creating a certain standard of living that would encourage a potential client to choose Ciechocinek, Naleczów or Slawuta instead of travelling to Carlsbad or Ostend. There were several factors that made the everyday life in a health resort comfortable. Firstly, good transport connections were absolutely crucial. Secondly, it was necessary to give visitors an chance to find comfortable lodgings, either in sanatoriums or in boarding houses. Thirdly, a vital factor was the quality of catering services, provided by sanatoriums, restaurants and boarding houses, as well as self-catering facilities (access to shops, kitchens, utensils and fuel). Fourthly, not less important, especially for convalescents, was an opportunity to find some entertainment. All those aspects are explored in the present article. The attraction of a resort was certainly increased by the closeness of a railway line. In all resorts there were carriages, cabs and carts waiting on the railway station to convey the arriving patients to sanatoriums and pensions. The prices varied according to the driving comfort. Choosing a good boarding house or reserving a place in a sanatorium was certainly central to the comfort of the stay in the resort, but it mainly depended on the visitor's financial standing. An important part of treatment was appropriate diet, following the doctor's advice. Visitors of health resorts had a lot of free time. Therefore, most resorts had ball rooms, concert halls, billiard rooms and reading rooms.

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The Statute Organizing the Followers of the Law of the Old Testament in the Free City of Kraków and its Environs: Origins, History, Regulations

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Jakimyszyn A.

Scripta Judaica Cracoviensia

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2010

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vol. 8

69-75

EN

The year 1815 saw the emergence of a new State on the map of Europe - the Free City of Krakow, which, because of its affiliation to the small group of European Republics, was also referred to as the Republic of Krakow. The Free City of Krakow stretched along the left bank of the River Vistula, bordering to the west with the Kingdom of Prussia, to the north and east with the Kingdom of Poland and to the south with the Austrian Empire. Its total surface area was 1150 km2, which - apart from Krakow which became the capital - also contained three small private towns, Chrzanow, Nowa Gora and Trzebinia, as well as 244 villages

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PEASANTS INTO POLES: SUBJECTIVIZATION AS A STRATEGY TO NATIONHOOD IN THE POLISH VILLAGE AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY

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Boncza-Tomaszewski N.

Sprawy Narodowościowe

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2006

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issue 28

75-88

EN

The analysis of a strategy of nationalization of peasants' national awareness in the Kingdom of Poland proves that the basic role in this process was played by the idea of the man as Subject. Konrad Prószynski, whose views were of pivotal importance for the alphabetization of millions of peasants in the Kingdom, treated education of agrarian population as a tool for their subjectivization. He strongly advocated self study, due mainly to the weakness of village education but also as a means of awakening individualistic and subject values such as self control, self knowledge, growth of individual capacities among the peasants. Prószynski instilled in his readers a belief that individual's talents and aspirations are what constitutes the value of man. Education is seen here in the ethical categories, in which affirmation of subject ideals was combined with an imperative to recognize dignity of each individual as a Subject. In the author's opinion the ideal of man as a Subject formed a basis for development of national awareness of peasants. Prószynski and other educational activists from the intelligentsia circles encouraged this ideal among the common people.

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LOSSES OF THE LANDOWNERS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND IN THE FIRST YEAR OF THE GREAT WAR

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Przenioslo M.

Dzieje Najnowsze

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2004

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issue 3

95-112

EN

In 1914-1915 the Kingdom of Poland was an area of wide-scale military operations, incurring considerable material losses in the estates of the local landowners. Some of the losses were not the outcome of the hostilities, but the outcome of the 'burnt earth' tactic applied by the retreating Russians. Apart from the devastation produced by the military campaigns, considerable losses were also due to army requisitions. as well as ordinary plunder committed by the soldiers. In certain terrains such damage was caused by the movement of the population evacuated from regions in which the battles were waged. The state of agriculture in the Kingdom of Poland was adversely affected by the absence of a sufficient labour force. Another serious problem, which sometimes outright rendered farm work impossible, was the declining number of horses. All those factors led to a considerable reduction of the area under cultivation, lower crops , and a drop in the livestock.

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Austro-Hungary and the Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Poland (August 1914 - August 1915)

80%

Gaul J.

Kwartalnik Historyczny

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2005

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vol. 112

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issue 4

73-91

EN

The entry of Austro-Hungarian armies into the Kingdom of Poland (August 1914) created numerous tasks for the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The key to guaranteeing peace and order in the hinterland lay in attaining a modus vivendi with the population inhabiting the Russian partition area. In order to normalise the situation, the occupation authorities considered it indispensable to establish friendly contacts with the Church hierarchy, and to amicably resolve all emergent problems in order to win over the local clergy, whose members undoubtedly exerted a great impact upon the population. The presented article deals with the policy applied by the Austro-Hungarian authorities towards the Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Poland - assorted plans and their realisation from the outbreak of the war to the establishment of a permanent occupation administration in the summer of 1915. The Austro-Hungarian authorities performed assorted conciliatory gestures towards the Catholic creed and Church in Polish lands. In February 1915 the supreme army command guaranteed full freedom of religious beliefs and conscience; the rights of legally recognised religious associations were to be identical to those enjoyed in the monarchy. It was recommended to support the Catholic creed, to maintain friendly contacts with the clergy, and to stir an awareness of belonging to a Roman Catholic empire. The authorities supported the provision of the Roman Catholic clergy with heretofore revenues - a task entrusted to the military administration. The improvement of relations with the Catholic Church involved also civilian authorities (Leopold Adrian), which attached great importance to the pro-Austrian political stance of the Polish population and Church authorities. Relations with the Catholic clergy in the occupied regions remained unsatisfactory, a situation aggravated by the uncompromising activity of both sides. The pro-reconciliation plans of the supreme Austrian authorities were not fully reflected in the steps made by the local authorities. Up to August 1915 the 'carrot and stick' policy produced extremely limited effects. The fact that it proved impossible to win the co-operation of the bishops and the parish clergy challenged a further successful impact of the Austro-Hungarian authorities upon the Polish population in the Kingdom of Poland and, consequently, reduced chances for an effective solution of the Polish question according to Austrian plans.

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The Russian Administration of the Kingdom of Poland and the Cracow Visit of Emperor Franz Joseph in 1880

80%

Wiech S.

Kwartalnik Historyczny

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2005

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vol. 112

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issue 4

47-72

EN

At the time of the visit paid by Emperor Franz Joseph in Galicia (September 1880) the Russian delegation welcoming the Austrian monarch in the name of Tsar Alexander II was headed by Petr Albiedynski, the governor-general of Warsaw. Numerous facts speak in favour of the assumption that the observations made by Albiedynski during his three-day stay in Cracow convinced him about the necessity of changing the political line which Russia had chosen in relation to the Kingdom of Poland after the defeat of the January Uprising. The Galician example indicated that it was possible to build a strong loyalist camp at the price of certain concessions (the introduction of the Polish language in schools and courts, the alleviation of censorship, the limitation of repressions applied in relation to the Catholic Church and clergy, etc.). The kindling of pro-Russian sympathies within Polish society was to eliminate inner tension and to create a political alternative to the pro-Austrian orientation, growing at the time not only in Galicia but also in the Kingdom itself. The reform plans proposed by Albiedynski, and the ensuing efforts pursued with this target in mind, encountered decisive resistance, especially when the assassination of Alexander II (1881) resulted in the fall of the 'dictatorship of the heart' and the restoration of a reactionary policy.

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COLLECTING HISTORICAL MILITARIA IN PARTITIONS-ERA WARSAW. PART II. FUNCTIONING IN SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS (Warszawskie koleckjonerstwo militariów historycznych okresu zaborów. cz. II. Funkcjonowanie w swiadomosci spolecznej)

80%

Ajewski K.

Muzealnictwo

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2007

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issue 48

61-67

EN

Wider circles of society in the Kingdom of Poland experienced considerable difficulties with becoming familiar with private collections of magnificent examples of historical weaponry. Amassed in the residences of their owners, the collections were available only to a chosen few, the only exception being the armoury of General J. H. Dabrowski, rendered accessible to the public up to 1830. Brief opportunities of seeing the impressive weapons were created by, i. a. funeral ceremonies conducted after the death of the renowned military and statesmen, buried in Warsaw. In the course of such events, catafalques were decorated with historical weapons from various collections. The projects and execution of such ceremonies, created by Zygmunt Vogel, a painter and a professor at Warsaw University, were distinguished by a frequent application of banners and panoplies composed of historical weaponry and emphasising links with warfare. The most important ones were associated with the burials of Commander-in-Chief Prince Jozef Poniatowski (1813 and 1814), Napoleonic-era generals - Jan Henryk Dabrowski (1818) and Stanislaw Mokronowski (1821), as well as the commander of the Knights School during the reign of King Stanislaw Augustus - Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski (1823). The last religious-patriotic ceremony of this type preceded the outbreak of the November Uprising of 1830 and involved the consecration of a mausoleum containing the heart of King Jan III Sobieski in the Warsaw Capuchin church. In the second half of the nineteenth century, collectors of militaria enjoyed a chance to present their accomplishments in the course of antiquity exhibitions, organised since 1856 and stemming from widespread interest in the history of the Polish state. In lieu of a National Museum, absent in the oppressed country, the exhibitions displayed the previously concealed and dispersed magnificent Warsaw collections of historical weaponry, thus creating a foretaste of the Museum in a free homeland.

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Cudowne interwencje sw. Bernardyna w Polsce sredniowiecznej. Liber miraculorum sancti Bernardini autorstwa Konrada z Freystadt

61%

Zajchowska A., Starzyński M.

Roczniki Historyczne

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2012

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vol. 78

231-254

EN

The object of the authors’ interest is a source which has been unknown to Polish medieval studies, namely „The book of miracles of St. Bernardino of Siena” written by Conradus of Freystadt. It is housed in the collection of the French National Library in Paris (MS nr NAL 1763). The authors analyzed the so-called „Polish part” of the aforementioned book, containing notes about the miracles which took place at the intercession of St. Bernardino during the visit of his disciple John of Capistrano in the Kingdom of Poland during the years 1453-1454. Additionaly, the genesis and the first phase of the development of St. Bernardino’s cult in Poland are discussed. The edition of the „Polish part” of this Liber miraculorum („Book of miracles”) is appended to the article.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF METALLURGY IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND IN THE YEARS 1870-1914 (Rozwoj hutnictwa w Królestwie Polskim w latach 1870-1914)

HEALTH RESORTS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH C. (Siec uzdrowisk w Królestwie Polskim i zachodnich guberniach Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego)

Pieniądz „Nowej Polski” księdza Piotra Ściegiennego. Rewolucje a pieniądz w XVIII i XIX wieku

EVERYDAY LIFE IN SANATORIUMS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE (Siec uzdrowisk w Koólestwie Polskim i zachodnich guberniach Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego)

The Statute Organizing the Followers of the Law of the Old Testament in the Free City of Kraków and its Environs: Origins, History, Regulations

PEASANTS INTO POLES: SUBJECTIVIZATION AS A STRATEGY TO NATIONHOOD IN THE POLISH VILLAGE AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY

LOSSES OF THE LANDOWNERS IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND IN THE FIRST YEAR OF THE GREAT WAR

Austro-Hungary and the Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Poland (August 1914 - August 1915)

The Russian Administration of the Kingdom of Poland and the Cracow Visit of Emperor Franz Joseph in 1880

COLLECTING HISTORICAL MILITARIA IN PARTITIONS-ERA WARSAW. PART II. FUNCTIONING IN SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS (Warszawskie koleckjonerstwo militariów historycznych okresu zaborów. cz. II. Funkcjonowanie w swiadomosci spolecznej)

Cudowne interwencje sw. Bernardyna w Polsce sredniowiecznej. Liber miraculorum sancti Bernardini autorstwa Konrada z Freystadt