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1

MARTYR MISSIONARIES IN HAGIOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. THE IDEAL AND ITS DECONSTRUCTION, FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TILL OUR DAY (Misjonarze meczennicy w hagiografii I historii. Ideal i jego dekonstrukcja od sredniowiecza do czasow najnowszych)

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Zajac P.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
109-140
EN
This article deals concisely with the criteria enabling to consider Catholic-Church saints or blessed to be martyr missionaries. The premises identified for the purpose were applied in selection of the most representative martyr missionaries for the mediaeval time, the modern era and our day, respectively. The thus broadly-set chronological frame is rooted in the fact that it has been the identical ideal that shone to all of these individuals - namely, the desire for martyrdom - regardless of the changing epochs and cultural conditions. For each period, several martyrs are discussed in more detail. The source materials, referred to by the Author, prove indicative indeed of their desire to die a martyr's death. Examples are quoted of the shaping of spirituality of this sort amongst alumnae of missionary clerical seminaries, using a peculiar iconographic programme. The article is crowned by an afterthought on a critical assessment of the ideal of mission-related martyrdom, as is present in our contemporary culture and historiography.
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REPRESSIVE MEASURES APPLIED AGAINST DIOCESAN CLERGY IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF POLAND. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES, CHRONOLOGY AND STATISTICS (Represje wobec duchowienstwa diecezjalnego w Polsce Ludowej. Problemy metodologiczne, chronologia i statystyka)

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Myszor J.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
191-209
EN
The Author proposes how to define the 'repressive measures' used by security authorities of what was the People's Republic of Poland (PRP) against the Roman Catholic clergy. He subsequently discusses chronological aspects of these repressive measures as well as outlines the research area. According to his suggestion, Roman Catholic clergy within the limits of post-Yalta Poland, the PRP of the period 1944/1945-1989 ought to be subject to research. Use in ecclesiastical historiography of not-quite-express nomenclature, derived from a purely theological domain, is a disputable issue. Instead of a martyrologium, a more adequate name, such as dictionary or lexicon, ought to be used, the Author suggests. This would not preclude research documenting heroic attitudes in light of the faith, which in postulated beatification procedures is defined under a shared name of martyr. The final section of this article presents a series of categories of repressive measures - both in terms of numbers and object-wise - with the scholarly research consequences ensuing from it.
3

AT THE ROOTS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN TITLE MARTYR (U zrodel wczesnochrzescijanskiego tytlu 'meczennik')

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Szczur P.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
23-40
EN
This paper tries to establish the original meaning of the early Christian title martyr. Analising the source texts allowed to draw several important conclusions: 1) Christian writers of the first two centuries give the term martyr and its derivatives denotations connected mainly with the widely understood Christian testifying- especially with admitting to being a Christian; 2) In their understanding, it was possible to become a martyr (martyr) for that Christian who, during a court trial and in the presence of a judge, admitted to being a Christian, regardless of being tortured or killed. Death was treated as 'completion' of martyrdom; 3) For the followers of Christ admitting to being a Christian could have been a cause of great suffering because in that period of time the term Christian had a pejorative meaning; 4) In the course of time, probably around the middle of the 3rd century, they started to differentiate between martyrs and confessors. Those who died for their faith were called martyrs, and those who managed to survive in spite of having been sentenced to tortures, hard work in mines and quarries or even death were called confessors; 5) It seems that contemporary literature shows an inclination to define the difference between martyrs and confessors too early. In the consequence, the title martyr is given only to those who lost their lives for the faith.
4

DOOMED TO NON-EXISTENCE. PIECES OF THE HISTORY OF THE GREEK CATHOLIC CHURCH IN POLAND, 1944-1989 (Kosciol skazany na niebyt. Z dziejow Kosciola greckokatolickiego w Polsce 1944 - 1989)

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Nabywaniec S.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
141-169
EN
Between 1939 and 1946, resulting from political and political-system-related as well as national events occurring in Poland, the organisation of the Greek Catholic diocese of Przemysl was destroyed to a considerable extent. As of 1946, a total of 230 Uniate parishes and branches were contained within the limits of Poland, plus five affiliated localities and other localities then remaining part of Poland, whereas the other sections of the parish were incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. Formally, the Greek Catholic church in Poland has not been rendered illegal but its structures were being destroyed. Repressive measures and deportations of bishops from Przemysl complemented the picture, as did the deportations of local Ukrainian, Lemko and Boyko people. The latter groups included members of the Orthodox as well as Greek Catholic Church. Reactivation of the structures of the Greek Catholic Church in Poland, combined, as it was, with their establishment in the so-called Regained (i.e. formerly German) Lands, was not an easy task at all. The essential part of the challenge was to find a temple wherein to perform the Divine cult in the resettlement area. Of the most frequent actions was shared use of Roman Catholic temples, which was not seamless in practice. In some Roman Catholic parishes, Greek Catholics, being of Ukrainian origin, were rather unwelcome by the Poles who memorised the cruelties of the homicide perpetrated by Ukrainian nationalists. Religious and theological argumentation was finally instrumental to overcome the resistance. There existed a few clusters of Ukrainian milieus in the former Rzeszow Province - the most resilient of them were those in Przemysl and Komancza. In the declining period of what was the People's Republic of Poland, the Greek Catholic Church in Podkarpacie area had a basic framework of its administrative structures, owing to the involvement of the Roman Catholic Church. The Greek Catholic Church regained full freedom in fulfilling its mission as the political-and-social change took place in Poland after 1989.
5

A PRIESTLY TESTIMONY OF MARTYRDOM: POLISH CLERGY IN WORLD WAR 2 (Kaplanskie swiadectwo meczenstwa. Polscy duchowni podczas II wojny swiatowej)

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Zych S.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
171-189
EN
1939 saw the Polish lands occupied by two totalitarian systems acting hostile to the Church - i.e. communism and National Socialism. Moreover, both the Germans and the Soviets perceived Polish clergymen as the nation's actual leadership team, a force which propagated patriotic values. Ukrainian nationalists persecuted Polish clergy on this same account. Forms of persecutions applied in German-occupied territories included killings, short-term imprisonment, deportation to extermination camps and, in general, into the General-Gouvernement area. The Soviets would use similar methods; however, the outbreak of the German-Soviet war stopped them from developing their discriminatory practices on a larger scale. W. Szoldrski's calculations have shown that during WW2, a total of thirteen bishops were affected by repressive measures (of which six got killed), 3,671 priests (2,030 killed) and 399 clerics or seminarists (173 killed). Later-date findings of W. Jacewicz have determined the total number of members of the clergy then subject to repression (including friars and nuns) at 6,367 (thereof, 1,932 of diocese clergy, including holders of lower orders, plus 580 friars and 289 nuns, killed). In spite of dozens of years having passed, the exact number of victimised clergypersons is not known; hence, further research in the area ought to be postulated.
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REPRESSIVE ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE COMMUNIST AUTHORITIES AGAINST MALE ORDERS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF POLAND (Dzialania represyjne wladz komunistycznych wobec zakonow meskich w PRL)

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Zamiatala D.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
211-236
EN
Male orders in Poland were perceived by the communists as a disciplined and well-organised army of the Church. The orders' influential power in Polish society was enormous and it did bother the communist authorities which wanted to hold a monopoly in ruling the people's souls. They accordingly took all measures to have the orders eliminated from the social life. The authorities publicly explained their hostile attitude toward orders by pointing out to their apparently hostile attitude toward the 'people's authority' and negative perception of socialist transformations taking place in the country. Orders were accused on a regular basis of managing ideological and propaganda influences being hostile to the People's Republic. Friars were accused of organising intelligence networks and practising espionage, including against the clergy itself. In the early years of the People's Republic, the authorities' policy against orders aimed at having them subject to the totalitarian state, or simply liquidated. The authorities did their best to overlook the orders' religious functions as this was not part of their proper area of interest. What they took into account was the orders' social activities as seen in a general context. The communists accordingly started limiting the orders' activities by applying a series of repressive measures against them, such as deprival of a financial base otherwise being indispensable for conduct of their statutory activity. This was committed under the majesty of the law, with the regulations often being bent, using brutal and primitive methods. The order restricting policies endeavoured to: inhibit the increase of the numerical force of friars; diminish the number of houses of male orders; reduce order-managed education, acquisition of proprietary rights, pastoral activities as well as charity-oriented, publishing and social activities. This purpose was served by inspections of order-held sites, fiscal policies, taking over of realties, etc. Administrative, political and propaganda methods were used by the communists to bring about the goal. In order to intimidate and break that 'hermetic' ecclesial order, the 'people's authority' went as far as applying repressive measures: condemnatory verdicts, imprisonment, high fine amounts; preventive forewarning conversations; interrogations and warnings, detentions, controls or inspections, searches and confiscations as well removals and displacements into another area, arresting, show trials, or surveillances. Several order members were blackmailed, accused upon false premises, sentenced to long years of imprisonment, or merely murdered. Friars were falling victim to assaults and beating performed by 'unknown perpetrators'. As part of fighting the orders, in order to debilitate their activity amongst the faithful, the authorities made use of their inner discords. Repressive measures were applied by the communist authorities against orders, with varying strength and using various methods; the social opinion had all that presented as means of defence of the state against aggression of the Church.
7

MARTYRDOM IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE MODERN ERA (Martyrologium Kosciola katolickiego w czasach nowozytnych)

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Cieslak S.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
65-107
EN
The article presents martyrdom in the Catholic Church in the modern era (16th-18th century) in some European countries. Besides socio-political and national factors, divisions and breaks among Christians in the years 1054 and 1517 had tragic consequences on the persecution of Catholics. The author not only illustrates persecutions of Catholics and mentions the most famous martyrs in that era, but also points out regulations and laws, which oppressed and discriminated against Catholics in social, political and economical life.
8

THE MARTYR OF THE MIDDLE AGES - MILES ET ATHLETA CHRISTI. MARTYRDOM IN POLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES AS THE EXPRESSION OF THE IDENTITY AND CREDIBILITY OF THE CHURCH (Polish title below)

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Bruzdzinski A.
Kosciol w Polsce. Dzieje i kultura (Church in Poland. Past and Culture)
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2011
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vol. 10
41-63
EN
(Polish title: Sredniowieczny meczennik - Miles et athleta Christi. Meczenstwo w Polsce w okresie sredniowiecza jako wyraz tozsamosci i wiarygodnosci Kosciola). Martyrdom in the Church is a constant reality, not a characteristic trait of a time of persecution. Thus, in the Middle Ages, although on a smaller scale than previously, there were cases of witness to Christ given by shedding one's blood. However, in this period we find another dimension of martyrdom. It was linked to monastic life. Martyrdom of the time crowned the life of the apostle to the pagans, which was flight (withdrawal) from the world. We have examples of this such as Saint Adalbert, the Five Martyred Brothers, or Saint Bruno-Boniface. Another form of martyrdom in the Middle Ages is the defense of the faith and the rights of the Church. It consisted of bearing witness to the faith, Christian morality, or the rights of the Church to sovereigns, including those who were Catholic. We have models of this in Saint Stanislas, the bishop of Plock Werner, and a Krakow vicar, Martin Baryczka. Another form of martyrdom is the death for the faith suffered at the hands of pagans or heretical invaders. This period runs in Poland from the middle of the thirteenth century to its end. There were several Christians in Poland who gave their lives in this way, but written evidence is lacking, which is why the Church's recognition has only been given to certain acts of martyrdom. We have an example of this in the person of the holy Dominican of Sandomierz who was called Sadok and his companions. The martyr, by his attitude, reminded and admonished people, exhorted and warned them. He reminded them of the need for asceticism in Christian life, in other words, for a continuous effort over oneself; he also reminded of the urgent duty to announce the Gospel. Then he exhorted to make a profession and courageous defense of the faith by one's entire life, without reservations. He warned of the moral disorder that is a catastrophe for man and for society. For the people of the Middle Ages, martyrdom meant a struggle, in which man becomes not only athleta Christi, 'fighter or athlete of Christ,' but even a true miles, 'knight.'
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