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1

THE DEVELOPMENT OF METALLURGY IN THE KINGDOM OF POLAND IN THE YEARS 1870-1914 (Rozwoj hutnictwa w Królestwie Polskim w latach 1870-1914)

100%
Kowalczyk R.
Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej
|
2009
|
vol. 57
|
issue 3-4
427-448
EN
The development of metallurgy in the Kingdom of Poland was dependent on Russian customs policy. Due to Russia's defeat in the Crimean War the Russian government, trying to facilitate the development of railways, decided to introduce the progressive liberalization of tariffs. The liberal era, started by the Minister of Finance Mikhail Reitern, saw the Russian market flooded with ironware imported from Western Europe. Metallurgy had no chance to develop. The only survives were producers from Swietokrzyski Okreg Przemyslowy (henceforth SOP) (Swietokrzyski Industrial Region). They survived on the market thanks to local demand, since the railway network was poorly developed and the cost of transport was very high. The situation changed radically in 1877. The system of privileged railway concessions introduced in Russia during the liberal era proved to be a heavy charge for the budget. Additionally, its debts grew after the outbreak of Russian-Turkish war. Consequently, Russia changed its economic doctrine and introduced the so-called 'golden duties'. After 1877 in the Kingdom of Poland the most profitable branch of metallurgy was steel production. It grew from 5,138 tons do 310,447 tons in the years 1878-1910. The most significant producers of steel were initially: the French company 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieries de Huta Bankowa and Stalownia Warszawska' (its shareholders were: 'Tow. Akc. Starachowickich Zakladow Gorniczych, Tow. Akc. Przemyslowe Zakladow Mechanicznych i Gorniczych Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein' and the German investor from Ruhrort in the Ruhr 'Rheinische Stahlwerke A.G.)'. Then there were German firms 'Vereinigte Königs-und Laurahütte A. G. für Bergbau und Hüttenbetrieb' - Huta 'Katarzyna', 'Milowizer Eisenwerk A. G.' 'Huta Aleksander', the 'Czestochowa' steelworks, belonging to the German concern 'Oberschlesische Eisenindustrie A. G.' and the 'Zawiercie' steelworks belonging to 'Oberschlesische Eisenbahn-Bedarfs A. G.' As a result, in 1910 75.94 % of steel was produced in steelworks controlled by foreign investors; 47.23 % of the output came from German and 28.71 % from French companies. The production of iron and ironware before the 1880s was mostly based on import. In the 1870s iron was produced by private and state-owned ironworks of the SOP; in 1876 their output was 17,700 tons. The year 1881 was a turning point for this branch of industry. The Russian government abolished the duty-free import quota on iron and raised customs duties for imported ironware. This attracted German investors to the Kingom of Poland. In 1910 German-controlled ironworks located in the Sosnowiecko-Czestochowski Okreg Przemyslowy (henceforth S-COP)(Sosnowiec-Czestochowa Industrial Region) dominated in the production of iron and ironware: out of the 25,353 tons of total output 83.55 % came from ironworks belonging to German investors. Before the 1880s foreign companies did not smelt pig iron in the Kingdom, since its import was cost-effective. In 1876 31,000 tons of pig iron were produced in the private and state-owned companies of the SOP. In 1880 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieries de Huta Bankowa' started to smelt pig iron in a new blast furnace shop. But it was only after the import tariff on pig iron was raised again in 1887 that most German investors decided to introduce a full production cycle in their ironworks. In 1890 127,300 tons of pig iron were smelted, 60.49% of which in ironworks belonging to foreign investors (47.74% in French and 12.75% in German ones). In 1913 80.80% of pig iron was produced by foreign companies, 77.88% of which was smelted in S-COP. The production of zinc was dominated by foreign companies already in the 1860s. This branch of metallurgy was first invested into by a German businessman from Upper Silesia, Gustaw von Kramst. In 1877 his plants smelted 60.10% of zinc from calamine ores out of the total output of the Kingom, amounting to 4,100 tons. The situation changed in 1890, when the assets of Kramst's company ('Tow. gorniczo-przemyslowe von Kramsta') were taken over by the French-controlled company 'Towarzystwo kopaln i zakladow hutniczych Sosnowieckich'. At the same time, the Russian government leased the state-owned zinc plants to the Russian company called 'Dzierzawcy rzadowych zakladow gorniczych w Krolestwie Polskim'. Due to French and Russian investments the production of zinc in the years 1891-1896 grew from 3,700 to 6,300 tons, but a real breakthrough in this branch came in 1897, when the assets of the bankrut company 'Dzierzawcy rzadowych zakladow gorniczych w Krolestwie Polskim' were taken over by the French investor 'Tow. Francusko-Rosyjskie' affiliated with 'Societe Anonyme des Forges et Acieres de Huta Bankowa'. Tow. Francusko-Rosyjskie' invested significant capital in the development of zinc production and in 1913 their plants smelted 60.20 % of the zinc produced in the Kingom, as compared with 39.80% smelted by the plants owned by 'Tow. kopaln i zakladow hutniczych Sosnowieckich'. Zinc production grew from 5,900 to 8,100 tons in the years 1897-1913.
2
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NÁLEZ SKLOVITÉHO(?) ZLIATKU Z KURIMY

80%
Čurný M.
Študijné zvesti
|
2009
|
issue 46
115 - 116
EN
The contribution presented at the round table informs about a glassy sow find that was revealed during the surface prospection in the position of Horna (Hurna) in Kurima, distr. of Bardejov. The sow is presupposed to be a metallurgical by-product.
3
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IRON CONCRETIONS IN THE SENEC-SVÄTÝ MARTIN 11TH –12TH CENTURY SETTLEMENT

70%
Hanuliak M., Uher P., Bačík P.
Študijné zvesti
|
2012
|
issue 52
131 - 140
EN
Ten pieces of iron concretions were found in two features from the 11th –12th century. Their limited number gives a cause for doubts that this raw material could be technologically processed for the raw iron. No equipment or other pieces of evidence of metallurgical activity was found in this settlement. For this reason is such production of iron in rural settlement little probable. More real could be the consideration that the iron concretions, which were found, were picked in order to produce red pigment which was used for staining. The results of mineralogical study of the Fe3+-rich concretions by optical and back-scattered electron image microscopy (BSE ), electron microprobe (EMPA) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD ) indicates a presence of hydrated and silicified goethite, Fe3+O(OH ), as the main component of the concretions. The iron content of the concretions attains 72 to 80 wt. % Fe2O3 and 3.5 to 5.2 wt. % SiO2. Textural and geochemical data support the natural origin of the iron concretions, probably by sedimentary precipitation of goethite from Fe-bearing solutions in wet swamp or lacustrine environment.
4

MARKS NOT PRESERVED IN CLAY. Some remarks on the theses contained in A. Mierzwinski's study (2003)

70%
Dabrowski J., Mogielnicka-Urban M.
Archeologia Polski
|
2004
|
vol. 49
|
issue 1-2
125-129
EN
The article polemizes with theses presented in A. Mierzwinski's study (2003), in which the author discusses a new conception of production relations and trade organization in the Lusatian culture based on studies of pottery preserving human fingerprints originating from the settlement at Kunice. The present authors put into doubt the possibility of determining people's age and gender based on the size of the fingerprints impressed in the clay, this being contrary to dactylographic data and the results of experimental studies on pottery decoration. By the same, they reject the view that these ornamented pieces, believed by the author of the controversial study to have been made by men, were used in metallurgical production, especially as neither the suggestions regarding their separate method of production nor the efforts to explain their function in the casting process have withstood critical analysis. There is no straightforward proof for such an explanation (although one would expect substantial evidence), a fact that Mierzwinski does not believe to be of significance. In consequence, the hypothetical reconstruction of work relations and trade exchange proposed in Mierzwinski's book cannot be regarded as justified.
5

FARSIGHTED VIEW OR AUTHORITY IN TROUBLE

70%
Mierzwinski A.
Archeologia Polski
|
2004
|
vol. 49
|
issue 1-2
130-136
EN
This article has been written in response to J. Dabrowski's and M. Mogielnicka-Urban's polemics (2004) with certain theses presented in my book (A. Mierzwinski 2003), in which I refer to a syncretic model of culture. I had discussed this model in detail with regards to the social and ritual aspects of production in the Oder river basin in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. In the present article, I have shown the futility of the debaters' attempt to question the possibility of using fingerprint marks on pottery for the study of the social identification of the pot makers. Consequently, their intent, which was to question the validity of the theory that the round discs were produced by men, proved unsuccessful. Neither were they able to discredit the theory that these discs could have been used as casting driers. The debaters did not present any arguments to substantiate their reservations concerning the specific modeling technique. The allegation that I have undertaken to reconstruct production and trade relations is baseless. From this point of view, one would rather say there is no motivation on my part to undertake such investigations. It is because I am a declared constructivist and far from any Marxist categorization. In the outcome, the assumptions and theses presented in my work, both general and specific, have not suffered in the face of these objections. This is due not only to the weakness of the latter, but also because the confrontation concerns divergent research attitudes, namely, traditional (empirical) archaeology versus contextual archaeology.
6
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NÁLEZ POZDĹŽNE REBROVANÉHO NÁRAMKU Z DOBY BRONZOVEJ Z IŽE-LEÁNYVÁRU

70%
Rajtár J., Mitáš V., Mezey V.
Študijné zvesti
|
2022
|
vol. 69
|
issue 2
249-260
EN
The article publishes the solitary find of a horizontally ribbed bracelet of tin bronze which was discovered in course of the revision excavation of the Roman castellum in the cadastral area of Iža village in 1979. Its presence at the site of Leányvár is generally explained by activities associated with construction and re-constructions of the military camp from the end of the 2nd–4th century. It is probably an ornament from a destroyed burial from the final Middle Bronze Age/beginning of the Late Bronze Age or a translocated settlement find from this period. Dating of the horizontally ribbed bracelet from Iža-Leányvár to stages BC2–BD1 follows from analogous finds from burial grounds in neighbouring countries and on identical bronze bracelets in the depot of Blučina 4 in Moravia in particular. A settlement find of a casting mould documenting regional production of bronze bracelets with three horizontal ribs is also mentioned.
7

FINDS OF SHAFT-HOLE COPPER AXES FROM THE TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA IN THE CULTURAL-HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF CENTRAL EUROPE. CONTRIBUTION TO METALLURGY OF LATE AND FINAL ENEOLITHIC

70%
Bátora J.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2023
|
vol. 71
|
issue 2
235 – 285
EN
The study deals with the discovery of shaft-hole copper axes from the territory of Slovakia in the wider cultural-historical context of the Late and Final Eneolithic in Central Europe. In total, there are 13 exemplars of axes with a single cutting-edge from Slovakia which can be classified in three basic types – the Baniabic, Fajsz and Kozarac-Stublo types. They were common not only in the territory of Slovakia, but also in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. Clay casting moulds document production of axes in the northern Carpathian environment as well – in the territory of today’s Hungary and Southwestern Slovakia. Spectral analyses have shown that the shaft-hole axes from Slovakia were most probably made of copper from local sources. It is remarkable that both types of copper raw material, i.e. oxidative and sulphidic, were used. The article points to the important role of the Corded Ware culture bearers who brought artefacts and some elements of the burial rite originating in the area above the Black Sea in the Pit-Grave and Catacomb cultures not only to the territory north of the Carpathian arc, to the territory of today’s Poland, but – through the central and upper Danubian basin – also to the western part of Central Europe, i.e. the region of today’s Austria, Germany and Czechia.
8
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SKLOVITÉ A INÉ TROSKY Z TZV. SKLÁRSKYCH PECÍ Z NITRY. PODNET PRE VÝSKUM HISTORICKÝCH TECHNOLÓGIÍ

61%
Staššíková-Štukovská D.
Študijné zvesti
|
2009
|
issue 46
105 - 111
EN
In the current article we present the summarized results of the recent interdisciplinary research, which was focused on the production provenance of the glass artefacts from the 9th century AC. The artefacts were found in 1960 during a previous archaeological excavation of four ovens in Nitra town. They were published many times as a proof of the existence of a glass production. Multiphase interdisciplinary analyses of glassy artefacts were subsequently published in the different editions. Here we present the results in resume and rise a discussion about the importance of these findings for the research of the historical glass and for the knowledge of the details connected with the technology of metallurgy of iron. We use a working term „glass-none glass” for the type of glass made during the iron production. This term should be understood as a contribution to the discussion on the necessity to distinguish through the verbal terms atypical to the glass production chemical compositions. These compositions have been evident for a long time among the results of the analysis of the glass beads mainly and of the other small items.
9

VYBRANÉ DOKLADY REMESELNEJ ČINNOSTI NA OPEVNENOM SÍDLISKU II V NIŽNEJ MYŠLI

61%
Olexa L., Olšav Š., Szabová L.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2021
|
vol. 69
|
issue 2
217 - 257
EN
Nižná Myšľa is well known to the expert as well as general public, as an archaeological site, mainly in association with a burial ground and fortified settlement from the Early and Middle Bronze Age. Fortified settlements are one of the specific features of the northern enclave of the Otomani-Füzesabony cultural complex and they represented production, trade, religious and later also power centres. The article deals with the fortified settlement II from the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. The archaeological excavation in Nižná Myšľa has been conducted since 1977. Based on the current knowledge, we can state that intense craft activities took place at fortified settlement II. With regard to the extent of craft activities, the article focuses on activities associated with metallurgy and lithic industry. These two topics are partly interconnected, since evidence of metallurgy contains mainly lithic casting moulds. Final finish of metal objects is associated with various tools for grinding, smoothing and polishing which are frequent at the site. Metallurgy was the moving power of the economy in the Bronze Age and Nižná Myšľa was one of its centres. Lithic industry, on the other hand, played an important role in people’s everyday life and was used in almost all types of industry. Therefore, its location in the area of fortified settlement II offers us an opportunity to partly locate craft districts and reconstruct the economic-production model of the settlement itself.
10
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT IN NEOLITHIC, ENEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE METAL ARTEFACTS FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE

61%
Śmigielska U.
Študijné zvesti
|
2022
|
vol. 69
|
issue 2
261-284
EN
The prehistoric metal artefacts have been at the centre of archaeological research for over a century. Archeometallurgical analysis largely focused on determining the geological origin of metal and its distribution patterns throughout Europe. For this purpose, among others, analysis of the content of trace elements was used. From 1954 to 1974 in Stuttgart, S. Junghans and E. Sangmeister conducted the largest project to study the chemical composition of copper and bronze artefacts. During the study, 22,000 items from almost all parts of Europe were examined, dated mainly from the Eneolithic period to the Middle Bronze Age. In order to perform the statistical analysis, which was the main purpose of this thesis, items from central and south-eastern Europe were selected from the published data set. The main goal is to compare the results of metal composition analysis with the formal classification of metal artefacts. Based on the content of four elements (arsenic, antimony, silver, and nickel), cluster analysis was performed to divide the material under study into groups. It resulted in the determination of 15 groups (and 17 subgroups of group 1 and five of group 2). Each of the groups has been characterised, taking into account the location, dating, cultural context, and typological category of artefacts. They represent production centres based on copper deposits from a given region. Statistical analysis of the content of trace elements provided relevant information on the general origin of the raw material, changes occurring from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, differences and similarities between the metallurgy of archaeological taxonomic units, and the level of metallurgical knowledge in prehistory.
11

MELČICE-LIESKOVÉ I – IV. ZHROMAŽDIŠTIA BRONZOVÝCH PREDMETOV Z BIELYCH KARPÁT

61%
Ondrkál F.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2023
|
vol. 71
|
issue 2
287 – 314
EN
Western part of the Carpathian Mountains is characterized by a high level of metalworking during the Late Bronze Age (app. 1325 – 1050 BC), with characteristic shapes and decorations, and some exceptional finds of bronzes. Readings of data on mass metal deposition by the Nordic and Anglo-Saxon models of conceptual thought usually associate the selective deposition of Bronze Age metals with regular votive offerings by the population. However, if votive deposition were a common practice in the Urnfield culture, one would expect such hoards to be distributed chronologically more evenly and on a wider geographical scale. The Melčice-Lieskové I (BD/HA1; app. 1225 – 1175 BC) and Melčice-Lieskové II – IV (HB1a; app. 1075 – 1025 BC) hoards – using an extensive typological protocol and a rationalized documentary base – testify to wave, episodic and the regional nature of hoards in the central area of the White Carpathians as a reaction to specific social and political events, such as military operations or other conflicts. Hoards even contain items inherited for generations, with morphological features based on different technological-typological principles. Not only did they reflect the brutal struggles of the time, but they also witnessed the politics, economy, and culture of the Lusatian and Middle Danubian Urnfields, connecting the specifics of historical cases to broader social mechanisms previously recorded in global episodes of change and innovation across time and space.
12

METALLURGY AND EARLY BRONZE AGE FORTIFIED SETTLEMENTS IN SLOVAKIA

51%
Batora J.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
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2009
|
vol. 57
|
issue 2
195-219
EN
The study presents proofs of metallurgical production at fortified settlements of the Early Bronze Age cultures on the territory of Slovakia in the northern part of the Carpathian basin in the chronological succession they appeared. Since the beginning of the 1950s close attention has been paid to the research of fortified settlements in Slovakia. Owing to this Slovakia and Slovak archaeology made an important step in raising awareness of the European scientific public. Relevant precondition for metallurgy development were deposits of non-ferrous metals (copper, gold and tin), which are situated first of all in regions of central and eastern Slovakia. From the point of view of metallurgical development in fortified settlements, the area where the western Unetice culture meets the eastern Hatvan culture, appears to be of extraordinary importance. In the final period of the Early Bronze Age the number of fortified settlements in the northern part of the Carpathian Basin increased and the development of metallurgical production culminated. While metallurgy in the period of the Hatvani culture was concentrated at areas of fortified settlements prevailingly, in the following period, that of the Madarovce culture, we can find proofs of metallurgical activities also out of fortified areas, at open space (Nitra, Bahon). This makes the region of the Madarovce culture close to that of the Veterov culture. Even more distinctively than in the Madarovce culture in south-western Slovakia, metallurgy of non-ferrous metals is documented in the Otomani culture in eastern Slovakia. This observation does not point out the fact that metallurgical production in the Madarovce culture was on noticeably lower level than in the Otomani culture. More probably it refers to different extinction of majority of fortified settlements in the Madarovce and in the Otomani cultures. While small number of hoards and almost total absence of bronze and golden artefacts in settlements of the Madarovce culture may refer to their gradual extinction, occurrence of numerous hoards of these artefacts in the Otomani culture, frequently hidden under a hut/dwelling floor, indicate their abrupt, probably catastrophic end.
13

PELLET BELLS FROM THE AVAR AGE CEMETERIES OF KOMÁRNO

51%
Pomberger B. M., Muhlhans J., Saunderson K., Gromer K.
Slovenská archeológia (Slovak Archaeology)
|
2021
|
vol. 69
|
issue 1
99 – 131
EN
The pellet bells from 15 graves of the Avar cemeteries Komárno IV, VIII and IX were examined for their position in the graves, their types, their acoustic and psychoacoustic parameters and their metallurgical compositions within the framework of the research project ‘Metallic Idiophones between 800 BC and 800 AD in Central Europe’. Based on the results, assumptions could be made about their functions. Burials with pellet bells are only a minority among all the total amount of burials of all three cemeteries together and date from the middle Avar period II onwards. Only five graves belonged to children. These pellet bells can be interpreted as amulets and rather silent signal instruments, fixed on the clothes of the persons. The other ten graves belonged to horsemen and their horses. These pellet bells were part of the horse harness and served as jewellery, warning signal instrument and amulet. Most of the pellet bells were hammered of bronze sheet, and followed by those cast in bronze. But there are also pellet bells hammered of iron, copper and brass sheet. Their main frequencies could be determined between 1.5 – 4.5 kHz. Acoustic and psychoacoustic parameters can help to identify also similarities and differences between the objects and to get an idea of the actual sound. Especially loudness and level can also be used to draw conclusions about the use of the objects. A video with the original sounds of the pellet bells was created and loaded up on the internet platform Youtube: ‘Pellet Bells from the Avar Period in Komárno’.
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