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EN
This paper discusses the careers and accomplishments of three men who were the de facto leaders of the organized Polish American ethnic community between 1939 and 2005. It shows how they gained and held power in organizations that allowed them to represent the concerns of a large and diverse ethnic community. Each individual played a key role in both defining the Polish community's concerns about Poland, its historic homeland, and articulating these concerns to America's highest elected public officials. This case study underscores the importance of American Polonia, one of the more significant, yet all too little examined organized ethnic groups in American pluralist politics in the second half of the 20th century by focusing on the careers of Charles Rozmarek, Aloysius Mazewski, and Edward Moskal.
EN
As I wrote my biography of Clement J. Zablocki, I became interested in determining who opposed Civil Rights in Milwaukee from 1958 to 1968. In 1958, a police shooting led to the beginning of Civil Rights agitation in the city. The area became a focus for Civil Rights opponents as Alabama Governor and Presidential candidate George Wallace famously campaigned for city’s Polish American votes in 1964. After a series of protests and riots in the South Side of Milwaukee in 1967, the city passed an Open Housing ordinance in the next year. That dictionary of popular wisdom, Wikipedia, explains that Milwaukee’s Polish Americans opposed Civil Rights as part of a “White Backlash.” I have decided to test that argument.
EN
No study of national identity, race, or ethnicity is complete without a consideration of the literature penned by members of the group in question (descent literature) and of the treatment and image of the group in literature penned by outsiders. This essay examines a recently published book for the light it throws on the Polish experience of World War II, on the plight of Poles displaced after the War, on the immigrant experience, on Polish American ethnicity, and, perhaps even more significantly, for the opportunities of genre which it suggests for future scholarship and creative work on all these topics. The book to which I refer is A Polish Doctor in the Nazi Camps by Barbara Rylko-Bauer.
EN
Bowling played a key role in community life among Polish Americans in Milwaukee during the first half of the 20th century. This working-class pastime was uniquely suited to industrial Milwaukee, which long held the reputation as “America’s bowling capital,” and the Polonia of the city accounted for a dominant share of its bowling public, focused for the most part in alleys within taverns on the Polish “South Side.” The locally-based Polish American Bowling Association attempted to unite Polish American bowling nationwide under its leadership. The bowling culture of Polish Milwaukee came to an end by mid-century, linked with larger social phenomena such as suburbanization and ethnic succession in what had been traditional ethnic urban neighborhoods.
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„WOLNE ORŁY”

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PL
Artykuł przedstawia pięcioletnią działalność „Wolnych Orłów” (1967–1972) w New Britain w stanie Connecticut. Organizacja ta została utworzona przez Józefa Kleszczyńskiego, Gabriela Piotrowskiego, Ernesta Bijowskiego, a na jej czele stanął podpułkownik Leonard Zub-Zdanowicz. Celem jej było zwalczanie propagandy komunistycznej, nieuznawanie legalności władzy PRL oraz zerwanie wszelkich oficjalnych kontaktów z jej przedstawicielami. W swoim gronie chcieli skupić osoby, które rozumiały groźbę ekspansji komunizmu. Symbolem organizacji stał się Orzeł Biały w koronie z łańcuchem i kulą u nogi. Zdaniem członków przywrócenie podstawowych praw i wolności dla obywateli polskich było możliwe tylko dzięki obaleniu władzy komunistycznej poprzez stworzenie Federacji Państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. Organizacja „Wolne Orły” przez okres dwóch lat wydawała w języku polskim biuletyn „Ku Wolności”. Była to pierwsza swego rodzaju gazeta w Hartford (Connecticut) skierowana do młodego pokolenia polskiego, przebywającego poza granicami kraju. Oprócz biuletynu wydawano różnego rodzaju odezwy skierowane do środowiska polonijnego w Stanach Zjednoczonych. W początku lat 70. XX w. na skutek prowokacji i donosów do władz policyjnych organizacja „Wolne Orły” stała się ofiarą przewlekłych inwigilacji i dochodzeń. Oskarżenia te przyczyniły się do jej rozwiązania i zakończenia działalności.
EN
The article presents the activities of the “Free Eagles” (1967–1972) in New Britain, Connecticut. The organization was created by Joseph Kleszczyński, Gabriel Piotrowski, Ernest Bijowski, and was headed by Lieutenant Colonel Leonard Zub-Zdanowicz. Its purpose was to combat communist propaganda, disprove the legality of communist power, and to breakdown of all official contacts with the representatives of the communist regime.The group wanted to focus on people who understand the threat of communist expansion. The organization’s symbol became that of a white eagle in a crown with a chain and a ball and chain. According to the members of the organization, a reintroduction of basic rights and freedoms for Polish citizens was possible only through an overthrow of the communist regime by means of creating the Federation of States of Central and Eastern Europe. For a period of two years the “Free Eagles” published a Polish-language newsletter entitled “Towards Freedom”. It was the first of its kind newspaper in Hartford, Connecticut addressed to the young generation of Poles residing abroad. In addition to the newsletter, the organization issued various proclamations addressed to the Polish community in the United States. In the early 1970s the organization was a victim of chronic surveillance and investigations due to provocations and denunciations to the police.
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