Full-text resources of CEJSH and other databases are now available in the new Library of Science.
Visit https://bibliotekanauki.pl

Refine search results

Journals help
Authors help
Years help

Results found: 39

first rewind previous Page / 2 next fast forward last

Search results

Search:
in the keywords:  Polish Armed Forces
help Sort By:

help Limit search:
first rewind previous Page / 2 next fast forward last
EN
The military forces usually conjure up the image of soldiers who serve in a given country, or those who carry out their duties in peacekeeping missions. They are frequently in the spotlight during their stay in the area of their operations and the performance of their duties. The memories of them and of any of the possible problems that they may encounter usually fade away once they have gone back to their country, or once they have returned to their parent unit. Interestingly, this rule also applies to other members of the military personnel. Service in the army, which frequently implies exposure to atrocities and ongoing hostilities, undoubtedly leaves its mark on people’s physical and mental health, and it can also have a major impact on the lives of professional soldiers and their families. Paradoxically, the level of stress experienced increases as the sense of a real threat goes down. Being a soldier is one of those professions in which exposure to stress is high, and there is a major risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), especially in those members of the armed forces who have taken part in foreign missions. This paper looks at the historical background of the phenomenon, its symptoms, its methods of diagnosis, as well as the entire system of monitoring, supporting and treating post-traumatic stress in the Polish Armed Forces. Such a study has been possible thanks to a thorough analysis of the applicable pieces of legislation, backed by an insight into a series guidelines, orders and dispositions given at all levels of command and supervision in the army.
EN
The course of present armed conflicts indicates the use of different instruments of power, whose major purpose is to gain control over the society and then exploit its resources. The nomenclature mentions hybrid warfare more and more frequently while seeking effective countermeasures against it. This topic is related to the creation of a new structure in the Polish Army – the Territorial Defence Force. The article presents the determinants conditioning the creation of the discussed formation and its assigned tasks. It analyses the expected objectives of the Territorial Defence Force as regards the adopted organisational structure, capability to perform its tasks and the established recruitment and training system. The article focuses in particular on countering tools of attack used in hybrid actions. The author refers to the course of events during modern asymmetric armed conflicts, for example in eastern Ukraine. Methods used by a potential enemy and the possible countermeasures exercised by the Territorial Defence Force are taken into consideration. The conclusions include an assessment of the importance of the new formation for Polish national security and defence.
Cybersecurity and Law
|
2022
|
vol. 7
|
issue 1
85-94
EN
The Minister of National Defense, as an organ of government administration whose jurisdiction also extends to cybersecurity in the military dimension, has been provided by the legislator with specific measures to ensure cybersecurity in the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland, or in the units subordinate to them or supervised by them – in the military dimension. The Minister of Defense is in charge of the Computer Security Incident Response Team operating at the national level, through which they also perform tasks related to information systems security.
EN
The involvement of the Polish Armed Forces in international operations in the first decade of the twenty -first century has increased the interest in the military as an instrument of foreign and security policy of Poland. During the 10 years since it had to operate within the NATO military mission, the European Union, “Coalition of the Willing” and in UN peacekeeping operations. This meant the necessity to equip it with the adequate forces and provided opportunities for effective execution of the tasks posed, not only the military. On the other hand, it required a proper decision where to send Polish army abroad. It was and still is the more important because it absorbs significant costs – both financial and material, like a human lifes, and often meets with opposition from the public opinion. Despite significant international engagement in expeditionary operations in 2009 adopted “Strategy of the Armed Forces participation in international operations”. The purpose of this article is to present the basic concepts and implementations during the first year of its adoption. It also helps to draw a conclusion on both – content and application, taking into consideration the usefulness of the army as an instrument of foreign policy.
EN
As a consequence of Russia’s aggressive actions – initially with regard to the annexation of Crimea, and the beginning of the armed conflict in eastern Ukraine in 2014 – many European Union countries have revised their current security and defence policies. The ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, initiated on 24 February 2022, only strengthened this tendency. For Poland, one of NATO’s major eastern flank states, the need to improve the management of national security that corresponds to the challenges and threats that lie ahead has become self-evident. The goal of this article is to look at the assumptions of the defence policy of the Republic of Poland, and to evaluate the country’s defence potential based on the implemented modernisation schemes.
EN
The course of present armed conflicts indicates the use of different instruments of power, whose major purpose is to gain control over the society and then exploit its resources. The nomenclature mentions hybrid warfare more and more frequently while seeking effective countermeasures against it. This topic is related to the creation of a new structure in the Polish Army – the Territorial Defence Force. The article presents the determinants conditioning the creation of the discussed formation and its assigned tasks. It analyses the expected objectives of the Territorial Defence Force as regards the adopted organisational structure, capability to perform its tasks and the established recruitment and training system. The article focuses in particular on countering tools of attack used in hybrid actions. The author refers to the course of events during modern asymmetric armed conflicts, for example in eastern Ukraine. Methods used by a potential enemy and the possible countermeasures exercised by the Territorial Defence Force are taken into consideration. The conclusions include an assessment of the importance of the new formation for Polish national security and defence.
EN
This paper presents the organization of language education in the Polish Armed Forces, which today focuses mostly on English instruction and is based on STANAG 6001. It highlights the importance of two key institutions, namely the Military Education Department and The Polish Armed Forces School of Languages. The final section deals with the military thematic units suggested in the language curriculum designed for soldiers and evaluates the presence of these themes in certification papers issued by the Central Examination Board for Foreign Languages of the Ministry of National Defence.
EN
The substantial re-education of the Polish Armed Forces has necessitated replenishment of the number of reserve personnel. To this end, new forms of short military training for volunteers have been introduced, in line with the objective that within the next few years the number of soldiers and civilian employees of the military will initially exceed 200,000, and later 300,000. The aim of this article is to analyse the possibilities of increasing Poland’s defence capacity through in-service training for teachers of military preparation units. The research included analysis of the literature on the subject of military education classes in Poland, as well as the study of regulatory documents in the area under consideration. Theoretical research methods such as analysis, synthesis and inference were also applied. The study presented here includes an account of the origins of the military preparation units and a description of the features of the in-service training for teachers of those units, conducted at the War Studies University.
EN
Task performance in the area of counteraction and removal of contemporary threats results requires a state to use all of its possible sources and resources. Main entities that carry out those tasks are Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland and Polish Police. Important areas of Polish Armed Forces and Police activities include tasks in the field of crisis management, security and public order maintenance, as well as country’s defence. An effective task performance in particular areas is highly reliant on the quality of joint operations of the entities. Different legislative acts only slightly define powers to organize joint operations by Armed Forces and Police, however, the rules of such operations are described in detail in the agreements concluded between them. The area of joint operations of Polish Armed Forces and Police which should be of much attention is a good organization of joint training courses and field exercises. Such undertakings would significantly improve the effectiveness of joint operations of the entities, consequently reducing the number of victims and material loss, improving the protection of natural environment and providing the state security at a high level.
EN
The article presents a fragment of memoirs of Klemens Nussbaum, former officer of Polish People’s Army (ludowe Wojsko Polskie), who fled Poland in 1969. His relation was written down after some years of living in Israel and deposited in one of archives in Tel Aviv. It bears witness to his military service, Polish–Jewish relations and the change in author’s attitude to Poland. It contains statements about experiencing anti-Semitism and about life in the Stalinist period.
EN
The purpose of this article is to present and discuss the issue of social competences in the structures of the Polish Armed Forces. This article seeks to present the most important issues concerning the social competence of the armed forces’ personnel on the basis of their own research. The first part of the article presents the essence and importance of social competence in working with people. In the mainstream of the article, the results of studies were presented, which indicated the level of social competence possessed and expected in the self assessment of the commanders tested. The analysis identified a competence gap in the command staff of the Polish Armed Forces that needed to be improved. The greatest need to systematically improve their competences was identified in the following areas: leadership, building good relationships with people and teamwork, conflict management, work experience and motivating subordinates.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest zaprezentowanie problematyki kompetencji społecznych w strukturach Sił Zbrojnych RP i dyskusji jej dotyczącej. W opracowaniu starano się przedstawić najistotniejsze zagadnienia dotyczące kompetencji społecznych kadr dowódczych Sił Zbrojnych RP na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań własnych. W pierwszej części artykułu zaprezentowano istotę i rangę kompetencji społecznych w pracy z ludźmi. W głównym nurcie pracy zostały zaprezentowane wyniki badań, w których zademonstrowano poziom posiadanych i oczekiwanych kompetencji społecznych w samoocenie badanych dowódców. W wyniku przeprowadzonej analizy wskazano na występującą lukę kompetencyjną kadry dowódczej Sił Zbrojnych RP wymagającą doskonalenia. Największą potrzebę systematycznego doskonalenia posiadanych kompetencji respondenci przedstawili w zakresie: przewodzenia, budowania dobrych relacji z ludźmi i pracy zespołowej, kierowania konfliktami, do-świadczenia zawodowego i motywowania podwładnych.
PL
Siły Zbrojne RP zajmują ważną pozycję w systemie obronnym państwa, ich status określa sam ustrojodawca. W związku z uznaniem cyberprzestrzeni za domenę operacyjną militarny wymiar cyberbezpieczeństwa zyskał na znaczeniu i konieczne stało się utworzenie wojskowej formacji właściwej w tym przedmiocie. Wychodząc naprzeciw potrzebie przeciwdziałania cyberatakom grożącym bezpieczeństwu militarnemu Polski ustawodawca powołał w Siłach Zbrojnych RP specjalistyczny komponent, jakim są Wojska Obrony Cyberprzestrzeni. Wraz z powołaniem tej struktury wojskowej konieczne staje się budowanie zdolności w obszarze cyberbezpieczeństwa, aby Wojska Obrony Cyberprzestrzeni mogły skutecznie realizować swoje zadania w zakresie walki z cyberzagrożeniami, które negatywnie wpływają (bądź mogą wpływać) na sferę obronną państwa.
EN
The Polish Armed Forces occupy an important position in the state’s defence system, and their status is determined by the legislator itself. In connection with recognising cyberspace as an operational domain, the military dimension of cybersecurity has gained significance and it has become necessary to establish a military formation with competencies in this field. Responding to the need to counter cyber-attacks threatening the military security of Poland, the legislator established a specialised component in the Polish Armed Forces, referred to as the Cyberspace Defence Forces. The establishment of this military structure has triggered the need to build capabilities in the domain of cybersecurity so that the Cyberspace Defence Forces can effectively perform their tasks in countering cyber threats that adversely impact (or may impact) the state’s defence sphere.
PL
Historia Polaków wywodzących się z Mandżurii, którzy brali udział w kampanii wrześniowej, a także w walkach Samodzielnej Brygady Strzelców Karpackich, jak i innych jednostek Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie, to nie tylko niezwykle chlubna karta dziejów Polonii mandżurskiej, lecz również oręża polskiego oraz narodu polskiego walczącego o swoje przetrwanie w szczególnie ciężkich warunkach II wojny światowej. Bohaterska postawa wielu Polaków z Mandżurii walczących w Wojsku Polskim jest tym bardziej godna uwagi, że część z nich znała Polskę wyłącznie z opowiadań swoich rodziców bądź nauczycieli, mimo to po jej upadku w 1939 r. byli oni gotowi do walki o jej wyzwolenie.
EN
The history of Poles originating from Manchuria who participated in the 1939 Defensive War, and in the combat operations of the Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade, as well as other units of the Polish Armed Forces in the West, is not only a glorious card in the history of Polish diaspora in Manchuria, but it also marks strength of the Polish Army and a nation which was forced to fight for its survival in particularly difficult conditions of World War II. The heroic attitude of many Poles from Manchuria fighting in the Polish Army is all the more remarkable that some of them knew Poland only from the stories told them by their parents or teachers, however after its fall in 1939 they were ready to fight for its liberation.
EN
The article presents the stage of research concerning Polish professional litera¬ture which was published before the end of September 2014, mainly in the form of extensive footnotes. Apart from what constituted obvious issues, it does not present the complete hitherto work of Polish historiography and the full catalogue of trans¬lations of works by foreign authors concerning mostly the armed forces of our then neighbours. What is more, in the case of selected major topics of this study, the author cited a limited number of foreign-language publication as well which dealt either with the Red Army or with Reichswehr or Wehrmacht. As a result of three partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the inde¬pendent Polish state disappeared from the map of Europe for 123 years. Till October 1831 the Polish armed forces continue existing, although in an abridged form. Conse¬quently, between the autumn of 1831 and the late autumn of 1918 there were no for¬mation of the Polish Army dependent solely on Polish, national, independent political centres and following Polish national interests exclusively. As a result, the continuity of the development as regards the national armed forces was broken. For that reason the Republic of Poland had to establish armed forces basically from scratch. In this extensive article the author addresses almost all issues corresponding to reconstruction, warfare, training, equipment and outlining as well as expansion of the Polish Army during the time of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The extensive pro¬fessional literature devoted to this subject suggests that a significant part of the issues described in the work have already been the subjects of more or less reliable analysis. Naturally, this does not mean that there are no problems requiring further exploration and source research. In many cases even a large number of bibliographic items are not sufficient to answer a complete range of questions. This is the case, for example, as regards Polish military formation in the East operating in years 1914-1918 which have been so far studied exclusively based on source materials located in the country and using Polish professional literature devoted to the subject. Despite recent literature increasing rapidly in numbers the situation is similar as regards other issues connected to the Polish Army. Consequently, Polish historiog¬raphy faces significant problems in determining the scale of Polish military effort in the period 1918-1921 and the size of the victory in the Polish-Soviet war of 1919- 1921. The situation is comparable with the one concerning the relationship between the status of the Polish armed forces at the peace rate and their development and modernization from 1921 to 1936-1939 as well as the level of armaments of Ger¬many and USSR. And it is indisputable that there was connection between these phenomena. In the meantime, in hitherto Polish historical professional literature, researchers often seem to abstain from these dependencies. This results in a very unilateral and little objectified description of reality which practically lacks knowl¬edge on real or potential opponents of the Polish Army.
RU
Представленный в статье, преимущественно в виде обширных коммента¬риев, обзор исследований касается исключительно польскоязычной литера¬туры, изданной до конца сентября 2014 г. Кроме того (и это очевидно), она не представляет всей польской историографии и не приводит полного перечня переводов работ иностранных авторов, касающихся, прежде всего, воору¬женных сил наших соседей того времени. Кроме того, по некоторым важным вопросам данной работы автор приводит ограниченное количество иностран¬ных исследований, посвященных, напр., Красной армии, Рейхсверу и Вермахту. В результате трех разделов Речи Посполитой Обоих Народов на 123 года с карты Европы исчезло независимое польское государство. До октября 1831 г. сохранились польские вооруженные силы, хотя и в ограниченном формате. Таким образом, с осени 1831 г. до поздней осени 1918 г. не было ни одного формирования Войска Польского, зависящего только от польских, националь¬ных и независимых политических центров и защищающих исключительно польские национальные интересы. Таким образом, была прервана непрерыв¬ность развития национальных вооруженных сил, что привело к тому, что, как и Республику Польша, их необходимо было возрождать почти с нуля. В статье автор затрагивает почти все вопросы, связанные с возрождением, военными действиями, обучением, оснащением и обмундированием, а также с реорганизацией Войска Польского в период Второй Речи Посполитой. При¬веденная обширная библиография по данной теме позволяет утверждать, что преимущественное большинство обозначенных вопросов уже было предме¬том в большей или меньшей степени объективного анализа. Однако это не означает, что уже не осталось проблем, требующих дальнейших поисков и исследования источников. Зачастую даже обширная библиография не в состо¬янии ответить на целый ряд вопросов. Так складывается ситуация с польскими воинскими формированиями на Востоке 1914-1918 гг., которые до настоящего времени исследовались исключительно по источникам, имеющимся в Польше, а также по польскоязычным источникам по данной теме. Подобным образом, несмотря на огромный рост в последнее время числа работ, выглядит ситуация с оценкой вопросов, связанных с Войском Поль¬ским. В результате в польской историографии возникают серьезные про¬блемы с определением масштабов усилий польской армии в 1918-1921 гг. и значимости победы в советско-польской войне 1919-1921 гг. Подобным оба¬зом выглядит оценка соотношения состояния польских вооруженных сил в мирное время, а также их развитием и модернизацией в 1921-1936-1939 гг., и уровнем вооружения Германии и СССР. Очевидно, что между данными явле-ниями существовала причинно-следственная связь. Тем не менее, в польской исторической литературе исследователи зачастую, кажется, абстрагируются от данной зависимости, что приводит к весьма одностороннему и мало объ¬ективному описанию действительности, в которой практически нет объектив¬ного знания о реальных и потенциальных противниках Войска Польского.
EN
In Polish 2nd Corps participating in combat operations in the Italian campaign in the period of 1944-1945 armoured regiments and armoured cavalry regiments served a significant function, constituting branches of modern weapons, predestined to provide high-manoeuvred, often independent tactical actions of a decisive nature. Both infantry or artillery were not able to conduct such actions. In years 1943-1946 22 officers commanded these regiments. Those commanders came from a variety of weapons – primarily armoured and cavalry as well as infantry, artillery and even communication divisions. This article presents their silhouettes. The author pointed out the turning points of their professional career – the position of the commander of the regiment was a specific summit of many years of military service.
RU
Во 2-м Польском корпусе, который в 1944–1945 вел боевые действия на ита¬льянском фронте, важную роль играли танковые и бронекавалерийские полки, использовавшие современное оружие, предназначенное для маневренных, зача¬стую самостоятельных тактических действий, имевших решающее значение, на которые не были способны ни пехота, ни артиллерия. В 1943–1946 гг. Этими полками руководили 22 офицера, ранее служившие в других формированиях – прежде всего, в бронетанковых частях и кавалерии, а также в пехоте, артилле¬рии и даже в войсках связи. В статье представлены их биографии. Автор акцен¬тировал внимание на переломном моменте в их профессиональной карьере, в которой должность командира полка увенчала многолетнюю службу.
PL
Celem artykułu jest charakterystyka trendów demograficznych zachodzących w Polsce i próba odpowiedzi na pytanie: W jaki sposób wpływają one na bezpieczeństwo kraju? Przeprowadzone analizy danych GUS i Eurostatu pokazują, iż w Polsce na przestrzeni ostatnich dekad obserwujemy nasilenie i kumulację negatywnych trendów demograficznych: 1) procesu depopulacji, 2) rosnącej liczby osób starszych (w tym tzw. podwójnego starzenia się), 3) zmian w strukturze wieku populacji. Powyższe procesy ludnościowe wyznaczają nowy porządek demograficzny, który istotnie wpłynie niemal na wszystkie obszary aktywności państwa i trwale zmieni społeczny kontekst funkcjonowania jednostek, a w przyszłości będzie wywierał coraz większy wpływ na zdolności obronne państwa i funkcjonowanie sił zbrojnych.
EN
The aim of this article is the characterization of the demographic trends taking place in Poland and the attempt to answer the question: how do they influence the security of the country? The conducted analyses of Statistics Poland and Eurostat data show that over the last few decades in Poland, the intensification and the accumulation of the following negative demographic trends can be observed: 1) a population decline, 2) an increasing number of older people (including so-called double ageing), and 3) changes in the structure of the population age. The above demographic processes determine the new demographic order which will influence almost all areas of the country operation and will permanently change the social context of individuals’ functioning and, in the future, will have an increasing impact on the defence capabilities of the country and the functioning of the armed forces.
EN
The article describes the group of patrons of military units in Polish Armed Forces. A lot of divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions, air bases and other military institutions are honored by name of historical characters – great monarchs and leaders from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth era, heroes from 19th century, officers fighting for independence and borders in 1914–1921 and soldiers from WWII or post-War era. All presented characters form a canon of specific historical memory of contemporary Polish Armed Forces.
PL
Artykuł prezentuje zbiór patronów jednostek i instytucji współczesnego Wojska Polskiego, których imiona noszą różnego stopnia związki taktyczne i komórki organizacyjne Sił Zbrojnych RP. W grupie „wojskowych” patronów można wyróżnić kilka typów postaci: wybitnych monarchów polskich, wielkich wodzów epoki staropolskiej, bohaterów epoki rozbiorowej, oficerów walczących o Niepodległość i granice w latach 1914–1921 oraz żołnierzy doby II wojny światowej i czasów powojennych. Zestawienie tych bohaterów stanowi wyrazisty przykład specyficznego kanonu pamięci historycznej współczesnego Wojska Polskiego.
EN
The article presents various forms of activity of the Central Military Library, which main goal is to create a positive image of the Polish Armed Forces. The authors outlined several initiatives taken by the library, illustrating them with numerous examples. The most important undertakings of CBW in disseminating the image of the army were presented in six basic groups: publishing activities, outdoor initiatives and events, exhibition activities, educational activities, Internet activities and film activities.
PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest różnorodnym formom działalności Centralnej Biblioteki Wojskowej, których głównym celem jest budowanie pozytywnego wizerunku Wojska Polskiego. Autorki nakreśliły poszczególne inicjatywy podejmowane przez bibliotekę, ilustrując je licznymi przykładami. Najistotniejsze przedsięwzięcia CBW w upowszechnianiu wizerunku wojska przedstawiono w sześciu podstawowych grupach: działalność wydawnicza, inicjatywy i wydarzenia plenerowe, działalność wystawiennicza, działalność edukacyjna, działalność w Internecie oraz działalność filmowa.
EN
The history of Poles originating from Manchuria who participated in the 1939 Defensive War, and in the combat operations of the Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade, as well as other units of the Polish Armed Forces in the West, is not only a glorious card in the history of Polish diaspora in Manchuria, but it also marks strength of the Polish Army and a nation which was forced to fight for its survival in particularly difficult conditions of World War II. The heroic attitude of many Poles from Manchuria fighting in the Polish Army is all the more remarkable that some of them knew Poland only from the stories told them by their parents or teachers, however after its fall in 1939 they were ready to fight for its liberation.
PL
Historia Polaków wywodzących się z Mandżurii, którzy brali udział w kampanii wrześniowej, a także w walkach Samodzielnej Brygady Strzelców Karpackich, jak i innych jednostek Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie, to nie tylko niezwykle chlubna karta dziejów Polonii mandżurskiej, lecz również oręża polskiego oraz narodu polskiego walczącego o swoje przetrwanie w szczególnie ciężkich warunkach II wojny światowej. Bohaterska postawa wielu Polaków z Mandżurii walczących w Wojsku Polskim jest tym bardziej godna uwagi, że część z nich znała Polskę wyłącznie z opowiadań swoich rodziców bądź nauczycieli, mimo to po jej upadku w 1939 r. byli oni gotowi do walki o jej wyzwolenie.
EN
The authors of the work take up the issue of changes in the approach to acquiring and maintaining human capital in the Polish Armed Forces in comparison with changes in the security environment. They point to the idea of the Territorial Defense Forces as an antidote to the “little green men” tactics used by Russia during the annexation of Crimea in 2014, as well as the solutions introduced by the Act of March 11, 2022 on defense of the homeland and the program to increase the size of the Polish Army, as an element of building military capability as an element of effective deterrence. To achieve the goal, i.e. to increase the size of the Polish Armed Forces to approx. 300,000 soldiers, a systemic change in the area of recruitment as well as the forms and principles of military service was necessary. Pointing to modern – keeping pace with the development of modern generations – solutions and increasing the attractiveness of service in an organization considered by many to be conservative is the essence of this study.
PL
Autorzy pracy podejmują problematykę zmian w podejściu do pozyskiwania i utrzymywania kapitału ludzkiego w Siłach Zbrojnych RP w zestawieniu ze zmianami w środowisku bezpieczeństwa. Wskazują na ideę Wojsk Obrony Terytorialnej jako antidotum na taktykę „zielonych ludzików” zastosowaną przez Rosję podczas aneksji Krymu w 2014 r. oraz rozwiązania wprowadzone ustawą z dnia 11 marca 2022 r. o obronie Ojczyzny i program zwiększenia liczebności Wojska Polskiego jako element budowy potencjału wojskowego będącego elementem skutecznego odstraszania. Do osiągnięcia celu, to jest wzrostu liczebności SZ RP do ok. 300 tys. żołnierzy, konieczna była systemowa zmiana w obszarze rekrutacji oraz form i zasad pełnienia służby wojskowej. Wskazanie na nowoczesne – nadążające za rozwojem współczesnych pokoleń – rozwiązania oraz wzrost atrakcyjności służby w organizacji uchodzącej dotychczas w opinii wielu za konserwatywną jest istotą niniejszego opracowania.
first rewind previous Page / 2 next fast forward last
JavaScript is turned off in your web browser. Turn it on to take full advantage of this site, then refresh the page.