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EN
For many Central Europeans hybrid warfare is only available to strong states wishing to mask their involvement in conventional warfare, not to weak non-state actors. The article tests this hypothesis and looks at the organisations on the Foreign Terrorist Organisations list in an attempt to establish whether or not they meet the requirements of a hybrid threat. Such an analysis helps establish if non-state actors could and would go “where eagles dare,” reaching for solutions such as those adopted by the Russian Federation in Ukraine. If so, and indeed this will be shown to be the case, this offers valuable takeaway points also for the exposed NATO eastern flank, which borders on the hybrid-prone Russia.
EN
A very important effect of the Iraq and Afghanistan missions is that more soldiers than ever before have acquired experience in a NATO or other international environment during these years. Although Hungary was represented in battalion strength in the missions of the 1990s, these missions, by their nature, necessitated only low-intensity contact with other allied forces. Tasks in Afghanistan required much more transparent and comprehensive cooperation with an entire coalition of countries and a host of other players. At any one time, about a quarter of the mission personnel were engaged in individual assignments, which meant that they were working in a foreign-language environment 24 hours a day. Since 2003, but especially since 2006, hundreds of Hungarian soldiers have experienced the culture of international cooperation, and this has certainly affected their professional knowledge and overall attitude.
PL
Dzięki analizie treści 1012 amerykańskich reklam telewizyjnych ustaliliśmy formy, treść i funkcjonowanie nekromarketingu w amerykańskiej reklamie telewizyjnej. Ustalenia pokazują, że niejawny nekromarketing jest częściej stosowaną taktyką marketingową niż jawny nekromarketing w medium. W szczególności branże ubezpieczeń i rozrywki przed programami czy wiadomościami częściej korzystają z odwołań do nekromarketingu w telewizji w prime timie niż inne branże w ciągu dnia.
EN
Thanks to the analysis of 1012 American TV commercials, we determined the form, contents and functioning of necromarketing in American TV advertising. Our conclusions demonstrate that implicit necromarketing is a more frequently used strategy than explicit necromarketing. In particular, insurance and entertainment sectors, before programmes or news, more often resort to necromarketing on TV in prime-time than other branches during the day.
PL
Artykuł bada relację z rosyjskiej okupacji Rygi w 1919 roku przedstawioną przez Monikę Hunnius. Opisuje ona przemoc i terror wojsk okupacyjnych wobec tzw. Niemców bałtyckich (Baltendeutsche) aż do chwili ich wypędzenia. Jednak nie chodzi tu jedynie o problem agresji. Recepcja Apokalipsy św. Jana jako swoistego subtekstu pozwala dostrzec agresywność w sferze języka. Agresywne strategie opisu są tu cechą charakterystyczną tekstu, apokaliptyczne obrazy przemocy służą do wyrażenia takich doświadczeń jak prześladowanie, strach i agresja.
EN
The present paper contributes to the discussion of violence in literature and language. It investigates the report by Monika Hunnius which describes aggression and terror under Russian occupation in Riga in 1919. Thereby, the analysis concentrates on two aspects: violence as the subject of the text – terror of Russian soldiers against Germans (the so called ‚Baltendeutschen‘) – and violence as a quality of the language the report uses. The interpretation of the text focuses on Hunnius’ reception of the apocalypse in The Book of the Revelation to John. Hunnius draws on apocalyptical visions to express suppression, fear and aggression.
DE
Der Beitrag untersucht einen Erlebnisbericht der deutschbaltischen Autorin Monika Hunnius über die russische Besetzung Rigas im Jahre 1919. Geschildert werden Gewalt und Terror der Besatzungsmacht bis zu deren Vertreibung. Doch hier geht es nicht nur um das Thema ‚Aggression‘, sondern durch die Rezeption der Offenbarung des Johannes gewissermaßen als Subtext auch um sprachliche Aggressivität, um aggressive Darstellungsstrategien als Texteigenschaft, zumal die apokalyptischen Gewaltbilder sich als Ausdruck von Unterdrückungs-, Angst- und Aggressionserfahrungen zu erkennen geben.
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