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EN
The su b je c t of co n sid e ra tio n s by th e au th o r, a g ra d u a te of th e High School of F in e Arts, Cracow consists in technological e x am in a tio n s of six fragm en ts of Ita lic m u ra l p a in tin g s th e age of which m ay be ap p ro x im a te ly d a ted fo r a p e rio d from th e 1st c en tu ry B.C. to th e 1st c en tu ry A.C. The above fragm e n ts of p olychromies a re coming from th e fo rm e r collection of th e C z a rto ry sk is fam ily an d according to ev e ry p ro b a b ility th e y w e re p u rch a s ed in Ita ly a t th e end of th e 19th c en tu ry . At p re s e n t th ey fo rm a p ro p e rty of National Museum, Cracow. In view of a b u n d an c e of m a te ria l p re s en ted by th e a u th o r h e r p u b lic a tio n w as divided in to two p a rts. The firs t of th em re p re s e n ts a k in d of in tro d u c tio n to e x am in a tio n s c a rrie d out. The un so lv ed up to th e p re s en t day p ro b lem of te ch n iq u e s ap p lied fo r e x e cu tio n of Roman m u ra l p a in tin g s is k n ow n in th e h is to ry of a r t u n d e r th e te rm of “d isp u te o ver P om p e ian fre sco e s”. Within a chronological system th e a u th o r has p re s e n ted th e most in te re stin g views of p a r tic u la r in v e s tig a to rs in th is question. By p re s en tin g of in d iv id u a l opinions she p o in ted to th e wide d isc rep an c ie s th a t could be en co u n te red in th e p a s t and a re still ex is tin g in opinions concerning th e te c h n iq u e s ap p lied by th e an c ie n t m a s te rs fo r th e e x e cution of m u ra l p a in tin g s. The ma in stre ss has been la id by th e a u th o r in th e p re s e n t p a r t of h e r work on th e p re s en t sta te of k nowledge re la tin g to m o rta rs , p igm en ts, b in d e rs an d v a rn ish e s in use fo r an c ie n t w a ll p a in tin g s in th e te r r ito ry of an c ien t Ita lia . The fir s t p a r t of th e p re s e n t p u b lic a tio n h aving h is to ric a l c h a ra c te r re p re s e n ts th e com p a ra tiv e m a te r ia l supplying a basis fo r co n sid e ra tio n s forming th e second p a rt. This second p a r t w ill be published in one of o u r fo rth comin g issues.
EN
Published in 1659, Brief Teaching of Building Manors, Palaces, Castles in Compliance with the Polish Sky and Custom [Krótka nauka budownicza dworów, pałaców, zamków podług nieba i zwyczaju polskiego], is the first in Poland genuine book entirely dedicated to residential architecture. An attempt at a new interpretation of the text is presented, particularly in reference to the relations between functional and aesthetical values of a building and to the principles of their shaping. Addressing the gentry immediately following a devastating war, the treatise author tried to find, resorting to understandable language, a compromise between a rapid and simple way of planning and raising a manor, however, while also respecting the classical rules of architecture. In his view, the source of architectural beauty is to be found in the proportions of the respective building’s parts, as well as in the harmony among these and with the whole. He relates these rules firstly to the interior arrangement and to the distribution and placement of windows and doors. In this very way they were connected with the Vitruvian principle of utility (utilitas). The building’s external form is the consequence of  skilful and sensible interior divisions, with the proportions and harmony of respective elements playing here the organizing role. It is precisely the relation between the interior and elevation that is decisive for the building’s aesthetics. Emphasising durability and utility, the author considers the structure’s proper division defined as compartito: a rational and harmonious spatial arrangement ordering the whole of the building, to be of key importance for shaping an architectural work. Subordinating the harmonious relation of a building’s part to the supreme compartito principle, for which the reference is to be rather found in utilitas than in venustas, makes the aesthetics of the building express itself precisely in the ‘skilful and sensible division of the building’. Linking the building’s aesthetics to its functionality and durability, as well as treating it as an organic whole in which the spatial functional arrangement and hence resulting elevation divisions must harmonize, places this Polish treatise within the Palladian tradition. However, the functional value should not be interpreted in the spirit of modern functionalism, but more as a strict connection of the building’s interior arrangement with its purpose, which should be adequately reflected in the architectural form. The useful character of architecture is inseparably connected with the cultural context, as the spatial-versus-functional arrangement must be adjusted to local conditions and customs.
PL
Opublikowana w 1659 r. „Krótka nauka budownicza dworów, pałaców, zamków podług nieba i zwyczaju polskiego” jest pierwszą w Polsce oryginalną książką w całości poświęconą architekturze rezydencjonalnej. W niniejszym artykule przedstawiono próbę nowej interpretacji tego tekstu, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do relacji pomiędzy wartościami użytkowymi i estetycznymi budynku oraz zasad jego kształtowania. Zwracając się do szlachty bezpośrednio po zakończeniu niszczycielskiej wojny, autor traktatu starał się, pisząc łatwo zrozumiałym językiem, znaleźć kompromis pomiędzy szybkim i prostym sposobem planowania i wznoszenia dworu a szacunkiem dla klasycznych zasad architektury. Według niego źródłem architektonicznego piękna są proporcje poszczególnych części budynku oraz harmonijna zgodność tychże z sobą nawzajem i z całością. Reguły te odnosi przede wszystkim do układu pomieszczeń oraz rozmieszczenia oraz umiejscowienia otworów okiennych i drzwiowych. W ten sposób zostały one powiązane z witruwiańską zasadą celowości (utilitas). Zewnętrzna forma budynku wynika z umiejętnego i rozsądnego podziału wnętrza, zaś porządkującą rolę odgrywają tu proporcje i zgodność poszczególnych elementów. To właśnie relacja pomiędzy wnętrzem i elewacją decyduje o estetyce budowli. Akcentując trwałość i celowość, za rzecz kluczową dla kształtowania dzieła architektonicznego przyjął jego właściwy podział, określony jako compartitio, racjonalny i harmonijny układ przestrzenny porządkujący całość budowli. Podporządkowanie harmonijnego powiązania części budowli nadrzędnej zasadzie compartitio, dla której punktem odniesienia jest raczej utilitas aniżeli venustas, powoduje, że estetyka budowli znajduje swój wyraz właśnie w „umiejętnym i rozsądnym podzieleniu budynku”. Powiązanie estetyki budowli z jej wartościami użytkowymi i trwałością, a także potraktowanie jej jako organicznej całości, w której układ przestrzenno-funkcjonalny i wynikający z niego podział elewacji muszą być zgodne, sytuuje polski tekst w tradycji palladiańskiej. Wartości użytkowej nie należy przy tym interpretować w duchu nowoczesnego funkcjonalizmu, a raczej jako ścisłe powiązanie układu przestrzennego budynku z jego celem, czemu powinna odpowiadać architektoniczna forma. Użytkowa wartość architektury jest przy tym nierozerwalnie związana z kontekstem kulturowym, układ przestrzenno-funkcjonalny układ musi być bowiem dostosowany do lokalnych warunków i zwyczajów.
EN
A description of the first organ construction, called the water organ (hýdraulis), is a matter of interest of not only instrumentologists, but mostly classical philologists. Actually, source texts on the subject had been drafted in Greek and Latin. One of them (lat.) originates from De architectura by Vitruvius Chapter 8, book X (1 BC. – AD 1), another (gr.) – from the work Pneumaticá (1, 42) by Heron of Alexandria (AD 1). Although above mentioned texts concern the same invention, they differ from each other in content, as well as the structure and terminology. Text analysis conducted during translation leads to the conclusion that more detailed and professional is the description by Heron, even though it is chronologically dated as later. It contains ordered instructions for the construction of water organ, which accurately describe all items. The description by Vitruvius lacks this feature and in addition there are inconsistencies in terminology and vague characteristics of some elements of the device. The greatest weakness of the text by the Roman architect is the fact that the reader does not learn what the purpose of water in water organs was. One can conclude that Heron, who operated in Alexandria, had access to the writings of Ctesibius and precise knowledge of the invention. The instrument presented by Vitruvius is a variant of the original device. The consequence of the popular translation of De architectura by Vitruvius and the lack of translation of Pneumaticá by Heron of Alexandria into Polish is a significant confusion in the Polish scientific and popular science literature. Various approaches, interpretations and representations of water organ can be found without any reference to the source. The present article also draws attention to the fact that the most important place in literature, directly informing that the inventor of the instrument was Ctesibius (III BC), is an excerpt from Belopoiicá by Philo of Byzantium (III BC). The second one is a statement by Vitruvius, though it should be noted that it is not included in the famous description of the organs, but in another place. These facts are commonly ignored in the studies and the knowledge of the inventor of the water organs is taken for granted. The readers can find in the present article the original texts and the author’s own translations into Polish. Another issue mentioned is the subject of terminology based on ancient instrument science since it is known that this instrument has not been called organs from the beginning. The paper also attempts to find out when the organs began to function as an instrument in liturgical space of the Catholic Church. On the basis of textual criticism of De musica by Cassiodorus and comparative analysis with other treaties it can be concluded that it happened in the sixth century.
EN
The article deals with the development of architectural interests in the circle of the Warsaw (Royal) Society of Friends of Learning, 1800–1832. The author takes into account the topics of lectures, publications and other types of scientific initiatives of the members from their active period in the Society but also its new member recruitment policy. The case of architectural interests in the Society gives us an opportunity to raise the question of the significance of architecture at the time (in the eyes of the intellectual elite sanctioned by authorities) as a factor of civilization progress, a role that the Society’s spreading of knowledge was meant to serve. Architecture was a field of interest throughout its entire existence. Initially, during the Prussian occupation and the Duchy of Warsaw, this interest focused on promoting the Greco-Roman ideal, or higher architecture, in line the paradigm of classical order. In the period of the Kingdom of Poland, however, we note a clear shift toward lower architecture and the affirmation of a new way of thinking about construction, breaking away from the classical tradition (which is best expressed by the choice of Karol Podczaszyński, a Durandist, as a member).
PL
W artykule, na podstawie wybranych obiektów architektonicznych, ukazano związki i przenikanie się myśli artystycznej i architektonicznej w XVI wieku między stolicą Wschodu – Stambułem a stolicą potęgi morskiej Zachodu – Wenecją. Przykładem wymiany myśli w dziedzinie teorii architektury, architektury i inżynierii jest twórczość tureckiego architekta Hoca Mimara Sinana (ok. 1489-1588) oraz weneckiego architekta Andrei Palladia (1508-1580). Fascynacja architekturą i sztuką Zachodu jest widoczna w twórczości Sinana w poszukiwaniu formy, dekoracji oraz sposobie kompozycji opartej na harmonii matematycznego piękna będącego funkcją witruwiańskiej triady – firmitas, utilitas, venustas. Sinan, opierając się na klasycznych zasadach sztuki budowania, potrafił nadać swoim budowlom nowy, indywidualny wyraz. Synergia klasycznego umiłowania piękna i orientalnego kunsztu dekoracji promieniowała na Zachód swoją maestrią, nie dziwi więc, iż wybitny teoretyk i praktyk, jakim był Andrea Palladio, uległ fascynacji rozwiązań architekta ze Wschodu. W artykule przybliżono te wątki, ukazując dwie niezwykłe osobowości artystyczne na podstawie wybranych realizacji oraz odnosząc się do dzieła łączącego architektów – traktatu Witruwiusza pt. O architekturze ksiąg dziesięć.
EN
In her article, the author, based on the selected architectonic objects, showed the relationships and interpenetration of the artistic and architectonic thought in the 16th century between the capital of the East, Istanbul, and the capital of the maritime power of the West, Venice. An example of the thought in the field of the theory of architecture, architecture and engineering is the works of the Turkish architect Hoca Mimar Sinan (around 1489–1588) and the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Fascination of the architecture and art of West is evident in the works of Sinan in seeking for the form, decoration, and the way of composition based on the harmony of mathematic beauty being a function of the Vitruvian triad: firmitas, utilitas, venustas. Sinan, relying on the classic rules of the art of building, managed to provide his constructions a new, individual expression. The synergy of the classic love of beauty and the oriental art of decoration emanated to West with its mastery; therefore, it is not surprising that an outstanding theoretician and practitioner, Andrea Palladio, yielded to fascination of the resolutions of the architect from East. In her article, the author brought closer those topics, presenting the two unusual artistic personalities based on the selected accomplishments and referring to the art linking the architects – the treatise of Vitruvius, entitled De Architectura libri decem.
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