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EN
When examining the constitutionality of the contested Article 62 para. 1 and Article 63 para. 1 of the Preventing Drug Addiction Act, the author assumed that those provisions do not directly interfere with the freedom of religious practice. Therefore, such provisions to the extent that they relate to cannabis other than fiber hemp, are not incompatible with Article 53 para. 1 and para. 2 of the Constitution. It was also considered that the contested provisions do not apply to the medical use of narcotic drugs and can not be assessed in the context of Article 68 of the Constitution. Moreover, it was noted that the objectives of the prohibitions set forth in the challenged provisions can be considered justified by the guarantee of healthcare derived from the Constitution, indicating the usefulness of the contested regulation because of the general requirements of prevention and the duty of adequate protection of constitutional values. It is also claimed that restriction of access to medicinal products cannot be regarded as inconsistent with the prohibition of degrading treatment, which means that the above mentioned provisions are in conformity with Article 40 of the Constitution.
EN
The purpose of the study is to explore how the COVID-19 situation has affected the illegal retail market and drug use patterns. Three research questions were formulated: 1) What has been the COVID-19 impact on the retail illegal drugs market? 2) How has the pandemic impacted drug use patterns? 3) Are there trends that presumably would have an impact after COVID-19? The mixed method with an explanatory sequential design was used in the analysis. At the first stage of the analysis all available quantitative data such as routine administrative data and data from regular surveys were analysed and triangulated. The results of quantitative analysis were supplemented by qualitative data, such as reports. The analysis does not suggest changes on the retail market, except for some increase in cannabis cultivation during the first wave in 2020 and a slight decrease in MDMA prevalence on the market in 2021. Drug use patterns are similar to those before the pandemic, with some exceptions that might indicate more cannabis and MDMA use among frequent users.
EN
Deterrence research has evolved considerably since the 1970s when a favourite offence for study was the emerging phenomenon of widespread cannabis use among mainstream populations. The deterrent model of crime prevention has expanded far beyond the study of objective and subjective indicators of certainty and severity to encompass social support, moral evaluations, peer involvement and, most recently, risk sensitivity and situational factors. Most earlier research found no evidence of deterrence of cannabis use, a fi nding attributed to its low actual and perceived risk of arrest and changes in public attitudes. This interview study with adult experienced cannabis users drawn from a representative survey base in Toronto, Canada, where possession is still treated as a criminal offence, provides a more nuanced interpretation of deterrence. The authors found that users had generally inaccurate knowledge about the current law and penalties and believed they would avoid arrest in the future. However, they were not oblivious to the possibility of police intervention, and took precautions such as carrying small amounts and avoiding public use. Thus, users were not unaffected by the law, but rather these discreet practices illustrate the operation of restrictive deterrence, shaping their choices of when, where and how to commit the crime of cannabis use. Further research on deterrence should examine situated choices by risk-sensitive offenders, and should also include cross-national patterns of arrest and user risk perceptions. While cannabis continues to be prohibited by international treaties, the reality of widespread use presents opportunities for innovative deterrence studies into this normalised yet illegal crime. The variation in policies, penalty structures and enforcement across European nations, compared to those in other Western jurisdictions, can foster relevant research for a transatlantic discussion about global drug policy transformation.
EN
Introduction and aim. Substance abuse and its associated problems are a global concern. Young adults, particularly college-going students, remain among the highest at-risk groups for various substance use disorders. So, this study was conducted to find out the prevalence of substance use and its correlates among undergraduate (UG) university students. Material and methods. We did an online cross-sectional survey among 1003 undergraduate university students across India using a pre-structured, self-reported questionnaire consisting of basic demographic details, standard tool (WHO-ASSIST), and the results were tabulated. A multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was performed to find out the correlates of substance use and Pearson correlation to find a correlation between ASSIST scores. Significance was attributed to a p-value <0.05. Results. A total of 320 (31.9%), 167 (16.7%), and 125 (12.5%) among 1003 students used alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis respectively. 70 (21.9%), 116 (69.5%), and 62 (49.6%) were at moderate-high risk of abuse for alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis respectively. There was a strong positive statistically significant (p<0.001) correlation between all three substance-specific scores (Pearson’s Coefficients r = 0.643, 0.763, and 0.725 respectively). Conclusion. One, two, and three out of every ten students used cannabis, tobacco, and alcohol respectively. Many of them fall into the moderate-high risk category. The data suggest that a student at high risk for any one substance is also at a higher risk of using another substance as well. This calls for an integrated ‘bundle’ approach to focus on all substances together as one unit.
EN
The article examines the question whether possession of an intoxicating drug (specifically cannabis) for the purposes of one’s religious practice is allowed in the light of the constitutional provisions that guarantee freedom of conscience and religion as well as the right to manifest one’s religion by religious worship, prayer and participation in rituals and that prohibit compelling anyone not to participate in religious rituals. Freedom of conscience is not the same concept as the freedom to practice a particular religion. It follows from the Constitution that the freedom to express one’s beliefs may be limited due to, inter alia, health, morality or public order. Therefore, the author takes the position that although freedom of religion is an important right among other human rights and freedoms, the right to manifest one’s beliefs must often give way to a higher-order good. Hence the conclusion that there are no grounds to consider the process of deliberate intoxication as religious worship that enjoys constitutional protection.
PL
Artykuł stanowi próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy posiadanie na potrzeby swoich praktyk religijnych środka odurzającego (konkretnie konopi), jest dozwolone w świetle przepisów konstytucyjnych gwarantujących wolność sumienia i religii, prawo do uzewnętrzniania swojej religii przez uprawianie kultu, modlitwę i uczestniczenie w obrzędach oraz zakazujących zmuszania do nieuczestniczenia w obrzędach religijnych. Wolność sumienia nie jest pojęciem tożsamym z wolnością praktykowania określonej religii. Z brzmienia Konstytucji wynika, iż wolność uzewnętrzniania przekonań może zostać ograniczona ze względu na m.in. zdrowie, moralność czy porządek publiczny. W konsekwencji Autorka zajmuje stanowisko, iż wolność religii jest co prawda ważna w katalogu praw i wolności człowieka, ale jej część w postaci uzewnętrzniania przekonań musi niejednokrotnie ustąpić przed dobrem wyższego rzędu. Stąd konstatacja, iż brak jest podstaw do uznawania procesu celowego wprawiania się w stan odurzenia za kult religijny korzystający z ochrony konstytucyjnej.
PL
Obecnie temat medycznego zastosowania marihuany poruszany jest publicznie częściej niż w ubiegłych latach. Najnowsze badania kliniczne potwierdzają leczniczy aspekt jej działania na organizm człowieka w walce z różnymi chorobami, które dotąd nie były możliwe do wyleczenia lub choćby do zmniejszenia ich wyniszczających skutków. Na świecie kolejne kraje dopuszczają obrót konopiami, albo całkowicie, albo jako quasi-legalizację. Polski system prawny nie dopuszcza obecnie wariantu legalizacji cannabis, jednak opinia publiczna wyraża w coraz większym procencie poparcie dla wprowadzenia legalnego używania marihuany do celów medycznych, a instytucje państwowe nawołują rząd do uregulowania tej kwestii. W środowiskach wspierających politykę antynarkotykową mówi się jedynie o negatywnych następstwach zażywania miękkich narkotyków. Warto zrobić bilans korzyści i strat oraz przeanalizować badania, by rozstrzygnąć dylemat − czy marihuana to samo zło, czy może rzeczywiście szansa na skuteczne leczenie?
EN
Nowadays medical use of marijuana is being brought up in public more often than in the recent years. The latest clinical trials confirm its healing effect on a human body in a fight against different kinds of diseases, which before its legalization were incurable or debilitating. In the world more and more countries legalize or quasi-legalize cannabis trade. The Polish legal system does not currently allow legalization of cannabis, however, the public opinion is voicing its approval for introducing legal, medical usage of marijuana, and public institutions agitate the government for regulation of this issue. Anti-drug communities speak only about negative consequences of using soft drugs. It is worth doing a balance of gains and losses and reanalyzing research to resolve the dilemma − is marijuana the pure evil or is it a real chance for effective treatment?
PL
Badania konopi, ze względu na rozpowszechnienie tego narkotyku na nielegalnym rynku, są jednymi z najczęstszych badań wykonywanych przez laboratoria kryminalistyczne. Pomimo tego, w kwestii tej wciąż istnieje szereg kontrowersyjnych problemów analitycznych, które wśród osób zajmujących się tą problematyką wywołują niejednokrotnie żywą dyskusję. Praca stanowi przegląd zagadnień związanych z konopiami oraz problemami analitycznymi związanymi z prowadzeniem oznaczeń sumarycznej zawartości delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolu (-9-THC) oraz kwasu delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolowego (-9-THCA-A) w próbkach ziela konopi. Oznaczenia te są obecnie najczęściej przeprowadzane metodą chromatografii gazowej lub w mniejszym stopni metodą chromatografii cieczowej. W przypadku metody chromatografii gazowej, zawartość sumaryczna oznaczana jest jako suma delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolu (-9-THC) pierwotnie obecnego w próbce oraz delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolu (-9-THC) powstającego w procesie dekarboksylacji kwasu delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolowego (-9-THCA-A). W metodzie chromatografii cieczowej oba związki mogą być oznaczane w ich naturalnej postaci. Obie metody posiadają szereg zalet i wad związanych z aspektami, które wymagają szczególnej uwagi przy prowadzeniu oznaczeń. Jednym z celów pracy było ich wskazanie i pośrednio przeprowadzenie charakterystyki porównawczej obu metod oznaczeń. Niniejszy artykuł stanowi przegląd doniesień literaturowych z ostatnich kilku lat ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem zagadnień związanych z poruszanym tematem publikowanych przez policyjnych ekpertów badań narkotyków w czasopiśmie „Problemy Kryminalistyki”. W pierwszej części pracy dokonano przeglądu zagadnień związanych konopiami i ich produktami, kannabinoidami, podgatunkami konopi, wykorzystaniem konopi, działaniem konopi na organizm człowieka, regulacjami prawnymi dotyczącymi konopi, metodami instrumentalnymi wykorzystywanymi do oznaczeń -9-THC i -9-THCA-A.W dalszej części pracy omówione zostały wybrane czynniki wpływające na wynik oznaczeń takie jak: pobieranie próbek; trwałość kannabinoidów w konopiach; wiek roślin; ekstrakcja; wilgotność próbek; derywatyzacja; trwałość roztworów wzorcowych; dekarboksylacja kwasu delta-9-tetrahydrokannabinolowego (-9-THCA-A); warunki rozdziału chromatograficznego; uwarunkowania sprzętowe. W związku z wymaganiami systemu zarządzania jakością narzucającym potrzebę akredytacji procedur badawczych mam nadzieję, że praca ta będzie stanowiła pomoc dla chemików analityków zajmujących się problemami oznaczeń próbek ziela konopi i zwróci ich uwagę jakie czynniki należy uwzględniać przy sporządzaniu budżetu i szacowaniu całkowitej niepewności pomiarów.
EN
Cannabis analyses are amongst the most common types of analyses performed by forensic laboratories, owing to the spread of cannabis-originated drugs on illegal markets. Yet, this subject brings about numerous controversial analytical issues that spark heated debates among specialists in the field. The present work is a review of cannabis-related and analytical issues pertaining to the determination of the total content of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (-9-THC) and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (-9-THCA-A) in herbal cannabis samples. Such analyses are currently typically performed by means of gas chromatography or to a lesser extent by liquid chromatography. In the case of gas chromatography, the total content is determined as the sum of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (-9-THC) that was originally present in the sample and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (-9-THC) formed as a result of decarboxylation of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (-9-THCA-A). The liquid chromatography method is suitable for assaying both compounds in their natural form. Both methods have a number of advantages and disadvantages that require particular attention while performing analyses. One of the objectives of the present work was to carry out a comparative study of both methods of analysis, including their advantages and disadvantages. Presented in this article is a review of the literature — particularly, related to the subject addressed herein — published in recent years by police drug experts in "Problemy Kryminalistyki" (eng. Issues of Forensic Science) quarterly. The first part contains the review of issues related to cannabis and their products — cannabinoids, cannabis subspecies, use and effect on the human body, legal issues related to cannabis, instrumental methods of assaying -9-THC and -9-THCA-A. The following part contains a discussion on factors influencing the assays' results such as sampling, stability of cannabinoids in cannabis, plant age, extraction, sample humidity, derivatization, stability of standard solutions, decarboxylation of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (-9-THCA-A), chromatography separation conditions and equipment. In view of the requirements of the Quality Management System that imposes the need for achieving accreditation of the test procedures, the author hopes that the present work will be helpful for analytical chemists working on developing cannabis assays and it will draw their attention to the factors that need to be considered when drafting budget and assessing total measurement uncertainty.
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