The increasingly rich and diverse literature on creativity has its core in psychology, but spans the cognitive sciences from artificial intelligence to philosophy and borrows from the wider humanities. Perhaps because of this immense breadth, there remains considerable disagreement with respect to the identity of the object of research. How to define creativity? According to the “standard definition,” creativity consists of “effectiveness and originality.” This definition is (relatively) consensual and therefore appears to capture something common to academic concepts of creativity. I conduct a conceptual analysis of the definition; thereby, I isolate and describe two ambiguities. Firstly, the definition leaves open the choice of the context and norms against which to measure originality and effectiveness. Secondly, it does not discuss the possible role of a subjective judge. My goal is not to propose yet another model of creativity, but to clearly identify the possible meanings of the word creativity in academic research. The existence of different interpretations does not necessarily reflect a fundamental disagreement about reality, but rather a failure to achieve consensus on a shared technical language. Therefore, simply recognizing and acknowledging the competition between diverse interpretations can form the basis for successful communication and for a complementary division of labor; it could improve the viability of interdisciplinary collaborations and prevent unnecessary fragmentation of the field.
The increasingly rich and diverse literature on creativity has its core in psychology, but spans the cognitive sciences from artificial intelligence to philosophy and borrows from the wider humanities. Perhaps because of this immense breadth, there remains considerable disagreement with respect to the identity of the object of research. How to define creativity? According to the “standard definition,” creativity consists of “effectiveness and originality.” This definition is (relatively) consensual and therefore appears to capture something common to academic concepts of creativity. I conduct a conceptual analysis of the definition; thereby, I isolate and describe two ambiguities. Firstly, the definition leaves open the choice of the context and norms against which to measure originality and effectiveness. Secondly, it does not discuss the possible role of a subjective judge. My goal is not to propose yet another model of creativity, but to clearly identify the possible meanings of the word creativity in academic research. The existence of different interpretations does not necessarily reflect a fundamental disagreement about reality, but rather a failure to achieve consensus on a shared technical language. Therefore, simply recognizing and acknowledging the competition between diverse interpretations can form the basis for successful communication and for a complementary division of labor; it could improve the viability of interdisciplinary collaborations and prevent unnecessary fragmentation of the field.
In recent years, with the development of entrepreneurship, a new concept has been coined - a start-up (or a startup). Because of the lack one common definition thereof, some questions emerge: Is any newly established company a start-up, or does this term refer only to companies fromthe branch/market sector of new technologies, or maybe there are other decisive requirements? The significance of this issue follows research and analysis of the entities are undertaken and also in the face of work on Prosta Spółka Akcyjna (a new legalform for economic entities of the discussed kind). The aim of the article is to present various ways of defining start-ups present in the subject literature, but also in various initiatives and activities organized in the start-up community. On this basis, an attempt is made to determine the boundary conditions of the concept of start-up and to characterize it
The article focuses on various approaches to conceptualising rural space within the evolution of (in particular British) rural studies. The overview starts with the functional definitions (descriptive and socio-cultural) typical for the positivist and modern period of rural studies. Descriptive and sociocultural definitions derive from the rural-urban dichotomy or continuum, and the rural space is defined in relation to cities as non-urban space. Since the 1980s the political-economic approach has significantly influenced rural studies, transformed them into a more critical science, and introduced a definition of the rural as a locality. This definition, however, only became accepted when it was combined with a definition of the rural as social representation. That definition is a product of the cultural turn in rural studies that has occurred since the 1990s, when post-modern and post-structural approaches penetrated rural studies and promoted fruitful scholarly discussion that then positioned rural geography firmly among other geographical sub-disciplines. Current hybrid approaches to the conceptualisation of rural space combine both material and ideational definitions of the rural and include also rural practices, through which the material and the ideational rural are interlinked.
The usual way of characterising the notion of “musical postmodernism” is set out by the following claims: (1) a postmodern musical work corresponds to the postmodern worldview; the notion in question is closely connected with the etymology of its name (“postmodern” means, in any case, “of an era after a modern one”); (3) the characterisation of the postmodern worldview (and, thus, of a postmodern piece of music) ought to conform to the beliefs of the classics of the postmodern thought; (4) the postmodern repertoire includes mainly the works created after about 1970; (5) the most important features of these compositions are euphony, aleatoric indetermination, polistylistics, and repetitiveness. The notion governed by the claims (1) – (5) is highly unclear and provides little help for understanding musical phenomena. In order to make it more precise, the basis of its definition should be modified and the three following claims accepted: (A) a postmodern musical work is a musical representation of the postmodern worldview; (B) the existing musical repertoire contains some postmodern works; (C) a correct definition of musical postmodernism should enable to qualify at least some of the given composi-tions as postmodern or not. The conditions (A ) – (C) and the analysis of the postmodern worldview seem to suggest that a postmodern musical work is such of a precariously integrated structure. A postmodern work represents the undermining (“deconstruction”) of the crucial idea of the com-posing practice: the piece of music arises from the integration of sounds, not of a simple aggregation of them. The musical “deconstruction” can emerge when some of the important portions a work or certain aspects of it exhibit larger degree of integration than the work as a whole. It seems that some compositions by Ives and the final movement of Chopin’s Sonata in B minor Op. 35 are postmodern in the sense pointed above.
Der Begriff formelhafter Äußerungen umfasst unterschiedliche Arten von Wortverbindungen, die vom Gedächtnis als Ganzes gespeichert und abgerufen werden. Der Beitrag diskutiert zwei in diesem Zusammenhang zentrale Fragen: Wie können formelhafte Äußerungen definiert und identifiziert werden. Formelhafte Äußerungen sind nämlich so verschiedenartig, dass es schwierig ist, ihre Definition zu formulieren und ihre Merkmale zu beschreiben. Die derzeit existierenden Methoden der Identifizierung (z.B. aufgrund von Häufigkeit) werden kritisiert, denn alle haben ihre Nachteile; die Anwendung der Intuition, die häufig von der Forschung herangezogen wird, ist auch mit vielfältigen Problemen verbunden.
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The term “formulaic sequences” encompasses various types of word strings which appear to be stored and retrieved as holistic units from the memory. This article discusses two major problems in the study of formulaic sequences: how to define their features and how to identify these sequences in discourse. The problem is that formulaic sequences exist in so many forms that it is difficult to develop a definition of this phenomenon and to find the main characteristics of formulaic sequences. The existing methods of identifying formulaic sequences (e.g. by frequency in the corpus) can be used to some degree but each of them has its drawbacks. Even drawing on the individual’s intuition as the basis for identifying these sequences runs into its own serious problems.
The purpose of this article is to introduce and rank information related to virtual reality as a new media phenomenon. In principle, in the Polish nomenclature, the term is so new that it is often confused, incomprehensible. This, in turn, translates into misunderstanding and the lack of the use of this communication channel. The article is a review of literature. In the first part concepts such as augmented reality, augmented virtuality, mixed reality, virtual reality, and immersion will be explained. A short historical outline of the virtual reality will also be shown. Then - in the next part of the article - the author compares this communication channel with well-known, such as the Internet, television, radio. Next the authorwill determine what are the fields of application of this communication channel and its condition.
Artykuł jest próbą zdefiniowania fotoreportażu oraz opisu jego dotychczasowego rozwoju. Wychodząc od kontestacji obowiązujących definicji, powstający rys problematyki odnosi się do aktualnych zmian i trendów. Po ustaleniu ram rodzajowych opisany zostaje rozwój fotoreportażu w perspektywie diachronicznej, prowadzący do ustalenia współczesnego statusu gatunku.
EN
This article is an attempt to define photojournalism and a description of its current development. Starting from the contestation of the existing definitions, problems resulting figure refers to the current transformations and trends. After determining the generic framework, the development of photojournalism is described in a diachronic perspective, leading to the determination of the contemporary status of the genre.
The article aims to define and classify economic policy objectives according to the methodological approach on which they are based. This is a significant issue that fills a gap in existing research, according to the author. Attempts to define economic policy objectives are often made at random; researchers in countries such as Germany usually limit themselves to listing such objectives, Horodecka says, while research reports in English-speaking countries tend to focus on the practical aspects of economic policy. The author discusses different methodological approaches to economic policy making. The adopted method of analysis makes it possible to determine the most important features of economic policy depending on the approach adopted. The author classifies and defines economic policy objectives depending on the methodological approach adopted. She identifies the following approaches in the context of economic policy objectives: a normative approach, focusing on economic prosperity; a positive approach, based on growth and stability as the functions of the economic system; and a descriptive approach, focusing on objectives actually pursued by economic policymakers in specific countries. The analysis resulted not only in defining and classifying economic policy objectives, but also in determining the advantages and disadvantages of individual approaches. This critical review of the existing methods points to the superiority of the descriptive approach, Horodecka concludes.
The article presents various definitions of prevention, which are described through five levels: semantic, legal, institutional, practical and teleological. The first part of the article is dedicated to the general understanding of prevention and the second is about the prevention of human trafficking for sexual exploitation. This article is based on two sources: international legal standards and academic literature.
: Despite the fact that the significance of institutional economics is commonly recognized, the uncertainty of basic concepts of institutional economics – institutions – and its investigation sphere is widely mentioned today. The paper aims to trace the process of evolution in the understanding of the notion of institution, from its spontaneous mentions and pragmatic use of the so-called pre-institutional era to the desire to understand and to define the essence of the institution in the period of early institutionalism. Based on the analyses of appropriate literature, the paper tries to study how the term “institution” was understood at the three initial historical period of its usage. For this purpose, the first part of the paper analyses how the term “institu-tion” was used at the start by religious figures in VII and XIII centuries and then by thinkers in XVII-XVIII centuries which are considered as a pre-history of the term “institution” wide usage. The second part of the study is focused on the investigation how the term was understood by immediate predecessors of institutional economics – German Historical School, and the third part of the paper investigates scholars-institutionalists’ efforts in the intellectual context on the period 1890-1930.
The use of terms in discourse is characterized by the presence of definitions aimed at explaining and clarifying their meaning in a given field, both for specialists and for non-specialists. This defining activity associates with terminological units, thus considered in their textual dimension, over time since their appearance in the language as neologisms. Although the question of definitions can be explored from different angles for the general language and for specialized language, in this paper we are interested in the automatic identification and analysis of definitions in a diachronic corpus. We intend to reflect on the data offered by these definitions with the objective of offering a terminographic description focused on the diachronic aspect of terms. After automatic identification, we will observe the definitions in two phases of terms: the moment of their appearance in the French language and the moment of their dissemination and lexicalization. Our attention is focused on the definitions characterizing the French terms in the commercial field in a diachronic perspective, within the DIACOM corpus.
Governance is a popular theoretical approach in the social sciences. However, it in-volves a number of definitional and theoretical problems. The issue of the ambiguity of the concept and the numerous attempts to recognize the complexity of reality in its framework is subject to criticism. A categorization of numerous definitions of govern-ance is proposed. The weaknesses of the governance approach as a theoretical framework in the social sciences are indicated: the inability to clearly indicate a causal entity in decision-making networks, wrongful diminution of the role of state agencies, its strong normative dimension. In the conclusions it is stated that governance is an attempt, albeit not very successful, but one and only at a holistic description of the hyperpluralist envi-ronment of public actors. The weakness of governance approach can be overcome by subjecting the phenomena to micro- or meso-level analysis.
This paper aims at determining the semantic representation of the expression błąd ('mistake'). The presented deliberations focus on a few questions that need to be answered in order to fulfil this aim. The first one relates to the isolation of linguistic units that represent the notion of błąd, and additionally, the issue of the characteristic lack of summetry between the functioning (including semantic funtioning) of the expressions błąd and błądzić / zbłądzić (błądzenie / zbłądzenie) ('to make a mistake / to have made a mistake (making a mistake / having made a mistake)'). The second question is associated with, as it appears, a commonly held differentiation into systemic mistakes (spelling mistakes, calculation mistakes, etc.), and mistakes made in life (mistakes relating to the decision resulting in someone's specific behaviour, e.g. undertaking a traineeship, resigning from work, taking out a loan) that - in the light of the hetero conclusions - seem neither necessary, nor needed. The third question refers to the basic issues in determining the meaning of the expressions, that is determining the obligatory features, and at the same time, sufficient ones so that one can say about something: to (jest) błąd ('it is a mistake'). According to the presented interpretation, błąd is the result of someone's controlled, intentional activity, leading to negative consequences. A readiness to evaluate something done by someone as błąd implies the possibility of choosing a particular action by someone who makes a mistake. The fourth question develops the idea of being aware of making a mistake, introduced earlier. Acknowledging the effect of someone's action as błąd is related to the perception of the doer as someone who may know that what he is doing may lead to an adverse result. The final question is in fact a synthesis of the solutions adopted with regards to the previous questions. This synthesis proposes an explication of the expression under discussion.
In the article the author discusses the beginnings of Polish camp literature, more precisely: literature referring to the Nazi German concentration camps. For decades it was assumed that the earliest Polish texts of that type were published in 1945. It appears that the first works – reports and memoirs – were published before the outbreak of WWII. In this article, the author discusses them in the historical and historical-literary contexts (mainly in the context of German writings).
This article focuses on definitions of organized crime that are available in the Czech literature and are often used in academic research. The definitions of particular authors as well as major international institutions are introduced. Subsequently there are discussed the defining features of organized crime and the most common crimes associated with organized crime. Selected typologies of this phenomenon and discussions related to the negative manifestations of organized crime are also mentioned. In terms of security issues and the security culture of individual states it can be stated that organized crime is difficult to eliminate but we can point to the increased efficiency of procedures in case of international cooperation in combating organized crime.
The concept of tourism clusters is becoming central within the tourism development planning process and the EU perceives cluster arrangements as the preferred form of introducing innovations in different economic fields, including tourism. The Polish Tourism Organization (POT) is to launch the subprogram aimed at the commercialization of the tourism product and intensification of SMEs’ integration processes (vertical and horizontal ones), which shall boost the innovativeness of Polish tourism regions and enterprises. The main purpose of this article is to find rationale for tourism cluster formation in Polish TDAs and to formulate the definition and main attributes of the tourism cluster. The problem of clusters’ impact on SMEs’ productivity and the destinations competitiveness will be discussed on the basis of economic theory using the case study and the field work method as well as the literature study.
In this paper we intend to prove the importance of cognition in the difficult and complex task of finding the right definition for a term or a collocation. The principles of categorization can be successfully applied in order to find the needed and structured information about the perceived world. They can also help finding the attributes that distinguish representatives of one category. Categorizing by using prototypes contributes to the development of individuals’ vocabulary in various fields and also in discovering the most important distinctive features in order to define object, beings or abstract notions of the perceived world. A good definition must contain not only distinctive features but also specific attributes, in order to increase its accuracy.
The theoretical and methodological substantiation of the essence of innovative technology is the most important factor in the global development of the economy, the modern understanding of its content as an economical category, the basis of innovation. The analysis of the scientific definitions of "technology" made it possible to identify two main areas that form the content of this definition: the presentation of technology as a certain set of techniques and methods for preparing, organizing, and implementing production processes. This approach fully reflects the logic of the industrial economy; the presentation of technology as a system factor of production based on knowledge, skills, and abilities. This is a more modern concept of understanding technology, which leads to an innovative development area.
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