The article presents the results of an original study of the defense tactics against discreditation during presidential campaigns in Poland between 1990 and 2015. It argues that in the context of an attack, the response of the targeted candidate is essential for the success or failure of his campaign. Several examples of discreditation are presented and the tactics of the attacked candidate are analyzed and interpreted. The article makes an original contribution to the academic literature on public relations and political marketing by offering a new typology of the defense tactics against discreditation.
This article investigates types of influence that the democratic opposition in contemporary illiberal democracies is able to exercise. The example of Russian democratic opposition demonstrates that exercising a hybrid type of influence, characterised by ideological syncretism and flexible adjustment to circumstances in undertaking social, political or educative activities, is the only strategy allowing both relatively effective communication with the audience and institutional survival. Contemporary democrats have to face not only autocratic governments and growingly isolationist societies, but also a global crisis of western liberal democracies and an increasing anti liberal “Zeitgeist”.
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