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EN
In recent literature scholars have worked out a number of new categories of meaning development such as zoosemy, plantosemy and foodsemy. This paper focuses on the mechanism of foodsemy, a new category of metaphorical extension proposed by Kleparski (2008), and in particular on the cases of metaphorical extension that are targeted at human beings and their various qualities. Most frequently, the process discussed here involves the projection of attributive features and values, sometimes positive, yet most frequently negative ones, associated with members of the macrocategory foodstuffs onto the macrocategory human being. The purpose here is to outline a limited number of metaphorical transfers involved in the conceptual macrocategory foodstuffs targeted at such subcategories of the microcatergory female human being as attractive female human being, immoral female human being and female breasts. For some language users it may sound somewhat unnatural, and hence unacceptable, to name a female person mutton with the intended metaphorical sense ‘a prostitute’, tomato applied in the transferred sense ‘attractive, but not a very wise female’ or peach, which denotes an ‘attractive female, especially in American English’. However, cases of foodsemy are nothing else, but instances of metaphorical conceptualizations, which are considered to be pervasive, unconscious and automatic. They are also universal, though different lexical items in different languages may acquire different metaphorical senses.
EN
The problem of introduction and use of feminine names is still current and arouses many controversies. One can find a lot of information concerning reasonableness of the use of feminine names and their social reception though there are only a few papers referring to their grammar and word-formation. Thus it is right to complete the discussion on the use of feminine names by a solid word-formation analysis, which also aims to show productive and non-productive word-formation types and the difficulties one can encounter while creating feminine names. The research used in this paper consists of 265 feminine names found in an annual 2014 of daily newspapers (‘Dziennik Łódzki’, ‘Gazeta Wyborcza’) and feminine magazines (‘Wysokie Obcasy’, ‘Zwierciadło’), used with reference to females.
EN
Słowa, słowa... Czy je znasz? edited by Teresa Smółkowa (Kraków 2013), despite the fact that it has been recorded the male equivalents (eg. lack of forms jajcara, siecioholiczka, zasiłkowiczka, although there are jajcarz, siecioholik, zasiłkowicz). The authors proved the presence of such potential female names in the National Corpus of Polish and on the Internet using Google search. Of the 263 units unrecorded in the lexicon until 218 are present – with varying attendance – in the tested texts. This means that these female names are present in the social use. They do not limit themselves to the female equivalent of male names of professions. They also include semantic categories such as sports and hobbies, and names: representatives of certain attitudes and beliefs, women with specific characteristics of mental (including addicted women) and physical (including sick women), Internet users (including online offenders). These names are the result of suffixal derivation, mainly using the suffix -ka, eg. erasmuska < erasmus, netoholiczka < netoholik (but also such as: -ini/-yni, -ica/-yca, -anka and -ara), and the paradigmatic derivation, eg. dredziara < dredziarz, sprawna inaczej < sprawny inaczej. Functioning described in the article female names in the social circuit is proof that in the past ten years there has been a significant change in the Polish language in the pragmatic aspects of the nomination of women.
PL
Mówimy dzisiaj, że język polski faworyzuje mężczyzn. Asymetria rodzajowo-płciowa i gramatyczne uprzywilejowanie form męskich mają jednak swoje uzasadnienie historyczne. Podobnie jak inne języki indoeuropejskie, polszczyzna rozwijała się w społeczeństwie patriarchalnym, w którym mężczyźni pełnili ważne społecznie funkcje i zasiadali na wysokich stanowiskach. Polki uzyskały prawa wyborcze w roku 1918. Dlatego polszczyzna sprzed początków XX w. po prostu nie potrzebowała żeńskiego odpowiednika formy poseł (nie było desygnatu tego leksemu w rzeczywistości pozajęzykowej). W artykule analizuję wyrazy, którymi na początku XX w. nazywano kobiety wybrane do polskiego sejmu.
EN
It is said today that the Polish language favours men. However, the gender-specific asymmetry and the grammatical privileging of masculine forms have their historical justification. Like other Indo-European languages, Polish developed in a patriarchal society in which men played important social functions and occupied high positions. Polish women got electoral rights in 1918. That is why the Polish language from before the beginning of the 20th century simply did not need a female equivalent of the term “poseł” [MP] (there was no designator for this lexeme in the non-linguistic reality). In the article, I analyse words that, at the beginning of the 20th century, were used to call women elected for the Polish parliament.
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PL
W artykule omówiono zmiany stosunku wobec żeńskich nazw tytułów i zawodów od początku XX w. do czasów współczesnych, uwzględniając zarówno praktykę (uzus), jak i refleksję metajęzykową. Ocenę oraz zakres stosowania feminatywów ukazano na tle zmieniającej się sytuacji społecznej i zawodowej kobiet oraz w powiązaniu z ideologiami motywującymi te zmiany. Takie ujęcie problemu pozwoliło zaobserwować charakterystyczne tendencje: wyrazem emancypacji kobiet była maskulinizacja języka ich dotyczącego, co stało się tendencją dominującą zwłaszcza po 1945 r.; feminizm (w Polsce aktywny dopiero od lat 90. XX w.) wystąpił z hasłami przeciwstawienia formacjom męskim derywatów żeńskich, zaś genderowa idea nieokreślania płci znalazła wyraz w obyczaju określanym jako splitting.
EN
The article investigates the changes in the attitude towards female names of professional titles and jobs since the beginning of 20th century until now, with particular regard to both practice (usus) and metalinguistic reflection. The evaluation and range of use of female names was presented against the altering social and professional situation of women and in relation to the ideologies behind these changes. Such approach enabled the observation of characteristic tendencies: the effect of the emancipation of women was the masculinization of the language referring to females, which became a dominating tendency especially after 1945; feminism (inactive in Poland until 90’s) claimed the opposition to masculine formations of female derivatives, and gender idea of unspecified sex was expressed in the custom of so-called “splitting”.
EN
This article is based upon the surprising deficiency of philological studies dedicated to the examination of the first female biographical descriptions that there in abundance in the Russian official discourse of the 17th century. Indeed, these early works reflect fundamental functions attributed to the lives of mediaeval women and depict family connections, locations, class affiliations, fiscal standings, and the legal rights to inherited property and assets. Likewise, we witness a limited choice of female occupations and their dreadful living conditions throughout tragic historical Russian epochs. These external facts, when combined with the incarnate use of applicable female proper names in the official discourse, give a new life to limited-gender terms such as maid, wife, mother, sister, daughter-in-law, widow, and midwife. This gender terminology played a specific-marker role in first female biographical descriptions, replacing the use of the women’s actual first names with their function as maid, wife, sister, mother, etc. To complete such tasks, goals, and functions are evident in their use in the original manuscripts found in Russian and Swedish archives and also previously published as official sources from the 17th century in the history of Volgograd, Novgorod, Tver, and Yaroslavl. This broad linguistic context allowed us to see and analyse the written processes in the formation and depiction of the first female biographical descriptions, some traits of which are still seen in modern Russian. The historical-linguistic materials presented in my article might have been useful in the 17th-century Russian Language Courses as well as interdisciplinary studies examining Slavic onomastic and mediaeval gender theories and studies.
RU
Актуальность настоящей статьи заключается в отсутствии филологических исследо- ваний, посвященных подробному изучению и описанию первых женских биографических формуляров, которые появились в русской официально-деловой письменности в XVII веке. Именно в них отразились такие важные эпизоды из жизни средневековых женщин, как их семейные связи и сословные принадлежности, фискальные сведения и юридические права наследования на землю другое имущество, лимитированный выбор профессий и условия выживаемости в трагические периоды развития России, места проживания и даже внешние черты. Эти перечисленные экстралингвистические факторы воплотились в лексическом на- полнении писцовых документов, в которых главную роль играли собственные женские имена и такие гендерные термины, как девка, жена, мать, сестра, сноха, вдова и повивальная баб- ка. Перечисленная гендерная терминология выполняла роль своеобразного маркера, который компенсировал возможные пропуски женских имен в писцовой документации в исследуемый промежуток времени. Для выполнения поставленных целей и задач автором использовались оригинальные рукописи, хранящиеся в российских и шведских государственных архивах, а также уже опу- бликованные писцовые источники по истории Вологды, Новгорода, Твери и Ярославля. Этот широкий исторический контекст и связанный с ним лингвистический материал позволили увидеть и проанализировать письменные процессы формирования первых женских биографических формуляров, отдельные черты из которых до сих пор используются в современном русском языке. Полученные данные могут быть использованы в курсах по истории русского языка XVII века, а также в смежных дисциплинах по исторической славянской ономастике и сред- невековым гендерным исследованиям.
EN
Although the feminine nouns had been a part of Polish language for ages, the category of feminativum still arouse emotions among the users of Polish and in the media. The article is an analysis of right-winged journalistic texts published at the turn of 2019 and 2020. The aim of the analysis is to point out and discuss the language manipulations and eristic techniques appearing in the texts. Author begins with outlining the status and shortly presenting the history of feminine nouns in Polish. Further he sets his research in the context of contemporary journalistic discourse about feminine nouns and defines the methodology he will be using. In the analytical part the author successively points language manipulations and describes eristic techniques using examples from analysed texts. In summary author suggests that the subject of feminine nouns in right-winged press seems to be just an excuse for ideological scuffles.
PL
Choć nazwy żeńskie od wieków należą do zasobów leksykalnych polszczyzny, to kategoria feminatywum wciąż wzbudza sporo emocji zarówno wśród użytkowników języka polskiego, jak i w mediach. Artykuł jest analizą opublikowanych na przełomie 2019 i 2020 roku prawicowych tekstów publicystycznych dotyczących nazw żeńskich. Analiza poświęcona jest wskazaniu i omówieniu pojawiających się w tekstach manipulacji językowych oraz użytych przez ich twórców technik erystycznych. Autor zaczyna od nakreślenia statusu nazw żeńskich oraz zarysowania dziejów tej kategorii w polszczyźnie. W dalszej części osadza badania w kontekście współczesnego dyskursu publicystycznego o feminatywach oraz określa metodologię, którą będzie się posługiwał. W części analitycznej, odnosząc się do przykładów z analizowanych tekstów, kolejno wskazuje pojawiające się manipulacje językowe oraz opisuje użyte techniki erystyczne. W podsumowaniu autor sugeruje, że temat feminatywów w prawicowej prasie okazuje się tylko pretekstem do ideologicznych sporów.
EN
Article relates to methods of nomination of the members of the community, which is the Congregation of Sisters of Divine Providence. It presents the Polish names of the positions occupied by the sisters and their functions. Formal analysis of words and word groups naming members of this religious family revealed that the majority of female names listed in the analysed documents has been derived from the proper male noun using the suffix -ka (sekretarka – secretary, ekonomka – treasurer, aspirantka – aspirant, kandydatka – candidate, postulantka – postulant, nowicjuszka – novice, juniorystka – junior, profeska – professed). The oldest word referring to the nun, already functioning in old Polish, is siostra (sister).
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