Search results

1

Proces starzenia się ludności a płodność w Polsce po okresie transformacji

100%

Podogrodzka M., Szkoła Główna Handlowa I. S. i. D.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

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2013

|

vol. 291

EN

From the 1990s. we note the considerable decrease in the fertility rate in Poland and the rise in the proportion of persons aged 60 years and more in population. The article is to demonstrate the dynamics of changes of both processes and to correlation between the two processes. For the description of the changes in the value of the fertility rate and the share of persons aged over 60 years we use a linear function of the trend, and to describe the relationship of both processes multiple linear regression.

2

Housing Affordability in Czech Regions and Demographic Behaviour – Does Housing Affordability Impact Fertility?

80%

Kostelecký T., Vobecká J.

Sociologický časopis. Czech Sociological Review

|

2009

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vol. 45

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issue 6

1191–1213

EN

The article examines the relationship between housing affordability and fertility in the Czech Republic after 1989. An analysis of national data suggests that improving housing affordability might be a factor behind the rise of fertility that has been observed since the beginning of the 2000s. The regional variation in fertility is generally lower than the regional variation of indicators of both housing affordability and the economic situation. Although the number of children born increased noticeably, total fertility did not increase at the same pace, and its regional patterns remained rather stable. The most important factor that influences the regional variation in fertility is the education of women, particularly young women. When the education of women is controlled for, housing affordability plays an important role in explaining the regional variation in fertility – both the total fertility rate and the timing of childbearing.

3

Differences in Fertility Behaviour among the Farm, Rural and Urban Populations in Slovenia

80%

Istenič M.

Eastern European Countryside

|

2009

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vol. 15

61-74

EN

Below replacement fertility in almost all European countries and lowest low fertility in a large part of the continent are significant demographic issues that concern contemporary policy makers and social scientists. Statistical data for Slovenia show that, with the exception of the farm population, all social groups have fertility levels that are below reproduction. This paper attempts to find out which factors are the most accountable for these differences and intends to contribute to broader scientific and public debates about the reasons for very low fertility in the ‘industrialized world’. The results of the analysis based on the survey "Generations and Gender Relationships on Slovenian Farms" (2007) indicate that differences in fertility behaviour among the farm and other parts of the Slovenian population are more related to the structural than cultural characteristics of the people.

4

Zdrowie reprodukcyjne kobiet – analiza poziomu wiedzy młodych studiujących kobiet w zakresie problematyki prokreacji

80%

Walentynowicz-Moryl K., Mianowska E.

Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny

|

2020

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vol. 65(1 (255))

160-173

PL

The main purpose of the article is to establish the level of knowledge about fertility among female students of the University of Zielona Góra. The presented analyses used part of the empirical material from the project “The role of fertility assumptions in the formation of procreative intentions” carried out on a representative sample of full-time female students of the University of Zielona Góra. The respondents have the highest level of fertility knowledge related to changes in women’s reproductive abilities with age. However, it should be noted that their awareness in this aspect is rather medium. For the most part, they correctly identify the age at which the woman is most fertile and the age at which her ability to conceive is significantly reduced. However, the vast majority of respondents are convinced that the process of reducing the ability of women to become pregnant begins later than in reality. As for the other two dimensions of fertility knowledge – the dimension related to estimating the chances of getting pregnant and the dimension related to infertility – the women are characterised by their low or average level. Most of the respondents overestimate the chances of pregnancy of a young woman (up to 25 years old), who had unprotected intercourse at the time of ovulation and a woman who, aged 25–30, had unprotected intercourse regularly during a period of one year. More than half of female students are aware of the scale of infertility in Poland, but at the same time most of them overestimate the effectiveness of in vitro fertilisation. The results obtained are similar to those obtained by researchers from other countries. Therefore, it is necessary to postulate including to the educational program the knowledge about the specificity of the human body, which is characterised by limited ability to conceive a child and changes in the fertility level of women appearing with age.

5

Fertility and developmental toxicity studies of diethylene glycol monobutyl ether (DGBE) in rats

80%

Sitarek K., Gromadzińska J., Lutz P., Stetkiewicz J., Świercz R., Wąsowicz W.

International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health

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2012

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vol. 25

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issue 4

404-417

EN

Objectives The solvent, dimethylene glycol monobutyl ether (DGBE), is a component of latex paints, inks; it is used as a degreasing agent, industrial detergent. The aim of the study was evaluating the effects of DGBE administered by gavage on the estrous cycle and given with drinking water on fertility in rats and early development of their progeny. Materials and Methods Female rats were exposed to DGBE by gavage during 8 weeks at 250, 500 or 1000 mg/kg/day. Vaginal smears were collected during the exposure and 4 weeks after its cessation. Fertility studies were performed in male and female animals exposed to in drinking water. Males were exposed for 10 weeks and then mated with females exposed before mating, during pregnancy and lactation. Young animals were observed during 3 weeks after birth. Results DGBE does not cause disturbances of the menstrual cycle in females. Parameters used to assess the general toxicity indicate that males receiving DGBE in drinking water are more sensitive to this compound than females: significantly greater, dose-dependent relative spleen weight, significant decrease in hematological parameters from 8% to 15% depending on the dose, were observed. Clinical chemistry parameters (HDL-cholesterol, BUN) and some markers of oxidative stress differ between the exposed groups and the control one, but without adverse health effect. The microscopic examination of internal organs did not reveal morphological changes in male and female rats. Conclusion The results of our study on the impact of exposure to DGBE on fertility in rats indicate that the substance administered for 9–10 weeks to females and males at a limit dose of 1000 mg/kg did not impair fertility or viability of their offspring during the first three weeks of life.

6

Wpływ powszechnych systemów emerytalnych na płodność

80%

Zwierzchowski J.

Gospodarka Narodowa. The Polish Journal of Economics

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2009

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vol. 231

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issue 4

75-89

EN

The paper aims to show the way in which pension systems affect fertility rates. The author outlines the history of pension systems and traces changes in fertility. The article includes a brief overview of demographic theories and tells the reader why these approaches are inadequate in explaining fertility trends. In his analysis, Zwierzchowski makes use of the overlapping generations model (OLG) to show why and under what circumstances pensions may discourage people from having children. After further theoretical research, the author concludes that the negative influence of pension systems on fertility could be neutralized by the introduction of a public assistance program targeted at parents. The costs of such a program could be covered by those who do not have children, Zwierzchowski says. While today’s welfare state systems cover some of the costs of bringing up children, it is unclear to what extent this assistance neutralizes the negative impact of pension systems on fertility, Zwierzchowski notes.

7

Can fiscal policy spur fertility?

80%

Kudła J., Walczyk K.

Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy

|

2018

|

vol. 13

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issue 2

167-179

EN

Research background: The decreasing fertility rate is a serious problem for policymakers as it affects the pension system as well as private consumption and savings. It seems reasonable to analyze whether fiscal policy may mitigate the low birthrate problem. Purpose of the article: In this paper we strive to answer the question whether fiscal incentives spur fertility if parents are rational. Methods: A theoretical economic model of utility maximization is applied to analyze the impact of fiscal policy on fertility. The conclusions are based on the analysis of comparative statics simulation calibrated for actual data from Poland. Findings & Value added: The results indicate that a substantial fertility effect can be obtained by raising subsidies for children or general benefits for families.

8

Multiple classification analysis. Theory and application to Demography

80%

Suseł A.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

|

2011

|

vol. 255

PL

Model analizy klasyfikacji wielokrotnej (MCA) jest addytywnym modelem mającym szersze możliwości zastosowania niż, np. modele regresji liniowej. Przede wszystkim ze względu na to, gdyż zmienne w modelu MCA mogą pochodzić ze skal np. przedziałowej czy nominalnej. Poza tym, możliwe jest określenie stopnia wpływu zmiennych niezależnych zarówno przed jak i po uwzględnieniu zmiennych kontrolnych. Wreszcie, nie jest wymagane spełnienie założenia liniowej zależności pomiędzy rozważanymi zmiennymi. Artykuł przedstawia zastosowanie modelu MCA w analizie wpływu poziomu dochodu na planowaną płodność Amerykanek.

9

Changes in the Procreative Behaviour in Poland and Some Impacts of the Process on the Size and Age Structure of Population as Revealed by Demographic Projections

80%

Lange M., Uniwersytet Łódzki; Wydział Ekonomiczno-Socjologiczny; Instytut Statystyki i Demografii

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

|

2011

|

vol. 250

EN

In the 1990s, fertility was dropping rapidly in Poland. According to the GUS and the UN projections, low fertility may continue in the next decades. The procre- ative behaviour changes irreversibly affect the age structure of population. If the fertility level as low as it is today continued, the number of births would be ultimately reduced by almost half compared with the present numbers. However, the structure of population would be changing gradually. First the number of the pre-school children would change and then of those at school age. The high variant of the UN World Population Prospects is the only one where the number of the children aged 0–4 years is growing to the year 2020. If fertility does not change their number will, however, drop dramatically from ca 1.8 million that we have today to below 1 million in 2050. Decreasing fertility may distort the demographic structure in the long term by re- ducing the share of children and contributing to a relatively overrepresented proportion of old persons. Because of fertility falling from the 1990s and the appearance of baby boomers and baby busters, the size of the working-age population (15–64 years) will grow smaller after 2015. The aging process will also continue. The median age will grow to approx. 50 years in 2050. The dependency ratio will also increase and there will be 70 working-age persons per 100 persons aged 15–64 years, instead of slightly more than 40 that we have today.

10

Starzenie się ludności w kontekście zmian w rozrodczości

80%

Lange M., Uniwersytet Łódzki W. E.-S.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

|

2013

|

vol. 291

EN

The aging of population is largely caused by falling fertility. To find out how fertility affects the share of the elderly people in the population, four variants of the UN World Population Prospects 2010 for Poland and Europe were examined, as well as selected indicators of population aging. The relatively high fertility and comparatively short life expectancy in Poland until the end of 1980s explain why its population aged much more slowly than other populations in Europe. In the last two decades the share of the elderly people kept increasing, mostly because of the deep decline in the number of births. For almost a decade now Poland has been one of the demographically old countries, although the aging process is relatively less pronounced in Poland than in Italy or Germany. In the medium variant of the UN forecast Polish fertility will be growing for the next few decades, but its level will not be high enough to ensure the minimum population replacement. Only in the high variant its growth will lead to rates of population reproduction higher than the minimum level. This situation might take place as early as the first half of the 2020s. The analysis of particular indicators illustrating the progress of demographic aging leads to a conclusion that even high fertility will not rejuvenate the age structure of Polish population, but it may considerably slow down the process of its aging.

11

Duszpasterskie towarzyszenie małżonkom w pierwszych latach małżeństwa. Rola poradni rozpoznawania płodności

71%

Brożek M.

Teologia Praktyczna

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2018

|

issue 19

191-203

EN

A human person is a sexual being. Sexuality, connected with fertility in its very nature, is one of the fundamental spheres of married life. Although sexuality and fertility accompany men and women throughout their whole lives, the fi rst years of married life are a special time of experiencing those phenomena. This time is usually connected with positive experiences, which properly shape and develop the couple’s relationship, and express it in the fullness of its wealth. However, the sexual relationship may also be the source of multi-fi eld crises which arise in the fi rst years of married life, and particularly after the birth of the couple’s fi rst child. Accompanying married couples in overcoming various crises is one of the important tasks which Pope Francis gives to the Church in the Apostolic Exhortation Amoris Laetitia. The aim of the present paper is to try to see the role and meaning of the centers teaching fertility awareness in accompanying married couples in crises connected with the sphere of sexuality and fertility during the fi rst years of married life.

PL

Osoba ludzka jest istotą płciową. Seksualność, związana z płodnością, jest jedną z podstawowych sfer życia małżeńskiego. Chociaż seksualność i płodność towarzyszą mężczyznom i kobietom przez całe życie, pierwsze lata życia małżeńskiego są szczególnym czasem ich doświadczania. Ten czas jest zwykle związany z pozytywnymi przeżyciami, które właściwie kształtują i rozwijają związek i wyrażają go w pełni jego bogactwa. Jednak seksualność może być również źródłem kryzysów, które pojawiają się na różnych płaszczyznach życia w pierwszych latach małżeństwa, a zwłaszcza po urodzeniu pierwszego dziecka. Towarzyszenie małżeństwom w przezwyciężaniu różnych kryzysów jest jednym z ważnych zadań, jakie papież Franciszek zaleca Kościołowi w swojej adhortacji apostolskiej Amoris laetitia. Celem niniejszej pracy jest próba dostrzeżenia roli i znaczenia poradni rozpoznawania płodności w towarzyszeniu parom małżeńskim w sytuacjach kryzysowych związanych ze sferą seksualności i płodności w pierwszych latach życia małżeńskiego.

12

COMBATING POVERTY THROUGH FAMILY CASH BENEFITS. ON THE FIRST RESULTS OF THE PROGRAMME “FAMILY 500+” IN POLAND

70%

Golinowska S., Sowa-Kofta A.

Polityka Społeczna

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2017

|

vol. 44

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issue 1(13) CHILD BENEFIT PROGRAMME 500+ OUTCOMES AND OUTPUTS

7–13

EN

The article is devoted to the analysis of the preliminary results of the “Family 500+” cash benefit introduced in Poland in the second quarter of 2016. The results are considered on a theoretical and comparative basis from the point of view of the politically declared objectives of the cash benefit, especially the radical reduction of child poverty and the improvement of fertility. The analysis is based on the BBGD unit data (2015 and 2016), EU-SILC data, including 2016, and data from the OECD database (Family Database). Preliminary results show that the 500+ benefit succeeded in reducing income poverty in many families, improving the structure of consumption for the needs of the whole family, but, at the same time, increased the tendency of mothers to leave the labour market, which is a phenomenon that had already started in Poland before the implementation of the 500+ benefit.

13

Diverging paths among Central Eastern European mothers? The degree of incongruity between employment preferences and their actual experiences (1994-2012)

70%

García-Faroldi L.

Sociologický časopis. Czech Sociological Review

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2021

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vol. 57

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issue 6

707-736

EN

This paper examines the congruity between mothers' preferences and actual experiences when raising preschool children, using data on mothers of reproductive ages (18–49) from the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) (1994, 2002, and 2012). The findings show that (i) with one exception, in all the countries and years, mothers whose preferences were congruent with their actual employment statuses outnumbered those whose preferences and employment statuses were incongruent; (ii) whereas Czech mothers improved their situations during the period (the congruity increases), Polish mothers - who began the period with the highest congruity - experienced a decrease in congruity, while Hungarian mothers showed the lowest congruity and saw a slight improvement in their situations (they achieved more congruity); and (iii) women who had their children during the communist regimes were more likely to experience incongruity because they worked more than they desired to, while women who became mothers during the post-communist period were more likely to experience congruity when they stayed at home, but they were also more likely to experience incongruity because they were inactive and considered working desirable. Therefore, the results confirm similar trends and diverging paths among the three countries. The high degree of incongruity between preferences and actual experiences is a sign of the problems faced by mothers attempting to reconcile work and family life and also impacts other phenomena, such as female employment, gender equality and fertility.

14

Migration and Fertility. Polish Migrant Families in Ireland and Non-Migrant Families in Poland: A Comparison of Fertility Plans and Behaviour

70%

Klimek Ł.

Central and Eastern European Migration Review

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2017

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vol. 6

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issue 2

5-30

EN

This study analyses and compares the fertility behaviour and childbearing plans of Polish migrant families in Ireland and those of their counterparts – families in Poland. The study has a comparative and explanatory character and applies both quantitative and qualitative methods. The analysis is based on the author’s own data collected from an online survey of Polish family units in Ireland in 2014 and compared with secondary data on families in Poland retrieved from the 2011 Gender and Generation Survey (GGS). My research reveals fertility postponement and fewer families with children among migrant families; nonetheless, migrant parents have more children than their counterparts in Poland. The results highlight the significance of socio-economic and institutional contexts. The study also reveals a dichotomisation of fertility strategies within the migrant population, with distinct differences in the number of children, transition age to parenthood, and further fertility intentions between migrants who became parents in Poland and those who did so after the move. The results also provide insights into the childbearing motivations and fertility patterns of recent Polish migrants and contribute to the discussion of migrants’ fertility in general.

15

Urbanisation and changes in fertility pattern in Poland and in the selected countries of Western and Southern Europe

70%

Kurek S., Lange M.

Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series

|

2012

|

vol. 17

|

issue 17

77-85

EN

Since the beginning of the 1990s profound changes have occurred in reproductive behaviour in Central and Eastern Europe. They involve a sudden fall in the fertility rate, accompanied by an increase in the age of mothers giving birth to their first child, and a growth in the percentage of extramarital births. A similar course of changes in reproductive behaviour was observed almost a decade earlier in the countries of Southern Europe (Greece, Spain and Italy), and at the beginning of the 1960s in the countries of Western Europe (e.g. France). The aim of the study is to show the spatial changes in the fertility pattern in Poland compared to the selected European countries - Italy, Spain and France. Since new fertility patterns take hold most quickly among the inhabitants of large cities, as a result of the weaker effects of tradition and earlier formation of social norms owing to suburbanisation processes, the analysis of changes in reproductive behaviours will be conducted in the context of changes in urbanisation level. The time frame of the study encompasses an extended duration, especially taking into account the period of 1970-2010. For the comparison of large cities, data from 2010 or the nearest available were examined.

16

Differentiation of reproductive behaviour of the population of the Kraków Metropolitan Area in the light of survey research

70%

Gałka J., Kurek S., Wójtowicz M.

Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series

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2016

|

vol. 31

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issue 31

45-57

EN

Metropolitan areas are the poles of economic growth of regions and countries. These areas are characterized by specific development cycles, which are related to the direction of population migrations. Accordingly, there is a phase of urbanisation, suburbanisation, disurbanisation and re-urbanisation. Studies show that most Polish metropolitan areas are undergoing the process of suburbanisation, which means the movement of population from the central city to its suburban area. This process entails a number of demographic, social and economic consequences. One of the main demographic consequences of suburbanisation is the change in the structure of the central city and its suburban area. The reason for this is the fact that migrations from the centre are usually undertaken by young people. Thus, the number of inhabitants of the central city declines and the population is ageing. Migrants from the city bring new patterns of social and demographic behaviour, which may be shown in, among others, the tendencies of indigenous people to change the traditional family model. This paper attempts to determine the reproductive behaviour patterns of the population of the Krakow Metropolitan Area (KMA) in the light of the survey. The surveys were conducted in selected KMA municipalities in 2013. The analysis of qualitative data, divided into two categories of respondents: immigrant and indigenous inhabitants, will give an answer to the question, what are the reproductive attitudes of the population and how they may affect the further development of these areas?

17

Przedmałżeńskie współżycie seksualne a⁠ odraczanie decyzji o⁠ małżeństwie i⁠ rodzicielstwie

70%

Juroszek W.

Family Forum

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2012

|

vol. 2

45-57

EN

In this publication it is analyzed how premarital sex influences postponing a⁠ decision to marry and decision to have children. Basic reasons of postponing marriage are also presented. It is proved that premarital sex delays such a⁠ developmental task as selection of the spouse. It is explained that the decision to marry is influenced by the following factors resulting from premarital sex: cultural acceptance of sex outside marriage, trauma due to interruption of previous sexual relations. Longer period of fertility in case of men than women is also considered.

18

Motives for Combining Motherhood with Employment: Evidence for Medium and Highly Educated Polish Women Around the EU Accession

61%

Matysiak A., Mynarska M.

Central European Economic Journal

|

2021

|

vol. 8

|

issue 55

EN

This article provides insights into employment decisions of mothers and mothers-to-be in a post-socialist Poland around the entry to the EU. Previous studies for this country continuously pointed to a strong determination among mothers to be employed during the economic transformation, despite increasing obstacles to combining paid work with childrearing over the 1990s. We analyse in-depth interviews to explore women's motives to work for pay. We investigate how these motives are related to women's childbearing experiences and intentions. Our analyses show that motherhood was central in women's lives at this point in Polish history, but females sought to combine it with employment. We also find that women's perceptions about their ability to balance work and motherhood were strongly related to the meanings that they attached to paid work.

19

The Power of Fertility and Its Importance for the Concept of Sustainable Development

61%

Jakubowska Z., Koza K., Leder W., Owczarczyk A., Skorupka Z., Wróblewski T.

Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae

|

2021

|

vol. 19

|

issue 3

25-35

PL

Jednym ze wskaźników zrównoważonego rozwoju są zmiany demograficzne wyrażane wartością przyrostu naturalnego populacji ludzkiej, którego stan wynika bezpośrednio z poziomu płodności (fertility) będącej przedmiotem rozważań niniejszego artykułu. Płodność człowieka jest złożonym potencjałem uwarunkowanym czynnikami środowiska przyrodniczego, społecznego i gospodarczego. Wielowymiarowe powiązania płodności, które mogą wpłynąć na jej stan, stanowią nieograniczone pole badań, studiów i analiz. Interdyscyplinarny zakres badań płodności, przeprowadzony przez autorów, pokazał, że płodność jest zagadnieniem, które zarówno w aspekcie historycznym, społecznym, politycznym i medycznym jest potencjałem przyczyniającym się do rozwoju społeczeństw i poziomu ich życia. Celem artykułu jest odpowiedź na pytanie: czy i w jaki sposób płodność jednostki ma znaczenie dla idei zrównoważonego rozwoju. By to osiągnąć, przeprowadzono analizę oraz syntezę dostępnego piśmiennictwa uzupełnioną o informacje przekazane przez ekspertów z przedmiotowego zakresu. W pracy zostały zaprezentowane: wybrane czynniki warunkujące płodność, sposoby mierzenia potencjału płodności oraz zróżnicowane konteksty, takie jak wpływ płodności na historię i jej powiązania z wolnością jednostki ludzkiej. Ponadto autorzy przedstawili powiązania między płodnością jednostki a założeniami oraz postulatami idei zrównoważonego rozwoju.

EN

Demographic changes are one of the indicators of sustainable development, expressed by the value of the natural increase in the human population, resulting directly from the fertility level, which is the subject of this article. Human fertility is a complex potential conditioned by the environmental, social, and economic factors. The multi-dimensional relations of fertility that may affect its level, constitute an unlimited field of research, study, and analysis. The inter-disciplinary scope of fertility research conducted by the authors has shown that fertility is an issue that, in its historical, social, political, and medical aspects, has the potential of contributing to societal development and raising the standard of living. The aim of this article is to answer the question: whether and how the fertility of an individual has an impact on the idea of sustainable development. To achieve this, the available literature was analysed and synthesised, as well as supplemented with information provided by experts in the field. The article incorporates presentations of selected fertility determining factors, methods of measuring fertility potential, and diverse contexts, such as the impact of fertility on history and its relationship with the freedom of the human individual. Moreover, the authors present the relationship between the fertility of an individual, and the assumptions and postulates of the idea of sustainable development.

20

Rodzina w konflikcie normatywnych paradygmatów oraz nowych faktów społecznych

61%

Bernasiewicz M.

Pedagogika Społeczna

|

2015 (R. XIV)

|

issue 2(56)

87-100

PL

W artykule podejmuję się omówienia szerokiego kontekstu zagrożeń, wobec których staje współczesna rodzina. Zmiany, jakim podlega obecnie model rodziny odczytać możemy jako zagrażające dla samej instytucji rodziny, jak i dla kondycji współczesnych społeczeństw. Przekształcający się choćby model rodziny małżeńskiej na formy pozamałżeńskie ma bowiem swój skutek w poziomie dzietności, która ulega drastycznemu spadkowi, obserwowanemu zresztą także i w małżeńskich formach rodziny. Patrząc na dane statystyczne, ale i ofensywność nowych teorii rodziny (socjologia postmodernistyczna), stwierdzić można, iż rodzina jako taka jest w kryzysie, przynajmniej w swoim dotychczasowym kształcie. W artykule rozwijam w sposób szczególny dwa z obszarów kryzysu, jaki dotknął najpierw model rodziny rozszerzonej, a teraz dotyka rodziny nuklearnej. Koncentruję się na nowych koncepcjach rodziny (socjologia postmodernistyczna i dające się powszechnie dostrzec nowe tendencje w zakresie życia rodzinnego) oraz na spadającej płodności.

EN

In the article I deal with the wide range of threats which are posed to a family. The changes of modern family models are discussed, low birth rates and alternative, more institutionalized forms of children upbringing. Statistical data and controversial new theories of a family (post-modern sociology) show that traditional family is in deep crisis. I elaborate on two areas of crisis, which affect not only the model of extended family but also a nuclear family. I concentrate on new concepts of family and on decreasing fertility-rates.

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Proces starzenia się ludności a płodność w Polsce po okresie transformacji