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PL
Poczucie bezpieczeństwa znacząco wpływa na jakość życia ludzi w przestrzeni miejskiej. Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie poczucia bezpieczeństwa mieszkańców miasta z uwzględnieniem przykładu Poznania. Badanie ankietowe zawierało pytania dotyczące oceny stanu bezpieczeństwa Poznania oraz jego zmian w ostatnich latach, poczucia bezpieczeństwa w zamieszkiwanej dzielnicy oraz najbliższym otoczeniu miejsca zamieszkania, wyboru najbardziej niebezpiecznej i bezpiecznej dzielnicy miasta w ciągu dnia oraz w nocy, obawy przed wybranymi rodzajami przestępstw oraz ocenę działań policji na obszarze miasta.
EN
Spatial analysis of crime distribution has a long tradition. In general, studies concerning this issue usually focused on compiling thematic maps. Some more advanced researching methods and techniques were popularised only after personal computers became widespread and GIS software came into broader use. One of the research procedures now available thanks to this development was spatial autocorrelation, which is the subject of this paper. In practice, spatial autocorrelation is about the degree of correlation between an observed variable in a given location with the same variable in a different location: the method allows to illustrate concentration areas of an analysed phenomenon in space, or the lack of such areas. The article first presents the theoretical and practical basis for the notion of autocorrelation. Following other researchers, it was assumed that the fundamental reason for spatial relations to emerge, i.e. spatial autocorrelation, are the interactions taking place among neighbouring objects in a space. This warrants to conclude that the intensity of a phenomenon analysed in one spatial unit exerts some effect (stimulating or destimulating) on the intensity of the same phenomenon in neighbouring units of space. This is confirmed in Waldo Tobler's first law of geography: “everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things”. By studying spatial autocorrelation, one may discover three different situations (fig. 1): a) positive autocorrelation – when units of high value neighbour units of high value of the same factor (hot spots), and low value units are found near each other at the same time (cold spots); b) negative autocorrelation – when high value units neighbour low value units of the same factor and vice versa; c) no autocorrelation – when no principle is de-tected, as a unit of high value is neighboured by units of varied level of the factor in question – both high and low. In order to study the proneness of a phenomenon to create autocorrelation, one should first establish the nature of spatial relations taking place between spatial units – meaning the closeness (intensity) of neighbourhood. The relations take the form of spatial weight matrices (fig. 2) in which queen contiguity or rook contiguity is used. The weights can also be defined based on the threshold distance or k-nearest neighbours. Due to the intensity of social-spatial contacts, it was decided that the best effects in analysing criminal activity will be obtained with the use spatial weight matrices in queen contiguity. The assumption was that the distribution of pathological behaviours within a city, it is the direct contact between people living nearby that is important; the existence of formal or informal boundaries (blocks, estates, neighbourhoods, etc.) was considered irrelevant. A formal assessment of autocorrelation can be conducted with a set of appropriate indicators analysed globally or locally.
EN
The article discusses the issue of digital technologies use for practical applications of the principles of modern ecologic currents in criminology. The phenomenon of crime is not distributed evenly in time and space. Detailed analysis of this regularity is possible owing to crime map making. The tradition of such map making originates in the 19th century and roots from the cartographic school. Their representatives conducted analyses basing on the data coming from French police statistics. More advanced studies on spatial distribution of crime, whose authors created theoretical conceptions attempting at explaining this phenomenon, originate from the Chicago school. In our times, with the advancement of computerisation, technical capabilities of modern computers and availability of good and reliable software, crime maps are becoming an even more easily accessible and effective tool in the analysis of the phenomenon of crime. Geographic information system (GIS) is the technology currently employed for spatial analyses. It allows introducing, storing, processing and visualising geographical data. Geocoding technology enables translation to geographic coordinates and digital map making containing information on the criminal events in a given city. GIS is used in criminological analyses in two main areas: digital crime map making and geographic profiling. Crime mapping is a tool for spatial analyses of criminal incidents which consists in putting together the time and place of crime to investigate spatial patterns of criminal behaviours and hot spots. It also enables to analyse criminal incidents according to various spatial variables e.g. to compare crime scene locations with locations like bars or schools, with demographic data concerning investigated areas etc. The idea of crime mapping has its roots in theoretical assumptions of environmental criminology which seeks relations between crime and its environmental and geographic determinants. Studies on crime scene locations are related mainly to the idea of hot spots, that is places where more criminal incidents than the average are reported. Crime maps are a useful tool which enables the analysts equipped with adequate criminological knowledge to seek the reasons for concentration of criminal activity in the area. In practice, digital maps are used by the police to obtain geographical data about a given area and to manage police units. Advanced use of GIS is made in everyday work of police forces in the USA and UK. Maps can also allow the data on crime statistics on a given area to be accessed by local communities. Geographic profiling is another GIS application enabling use of criminological knowledge. It allows to establish the most likely estimated place of residence of serial offenders. A profile is made based on information concerning crime location and other places of significance to the incident (eg. place where the corpse was abandoned).
EN
The main aim of this article is to present geographic profiling as a method useful in spatial analyses for the purpose of discovering criminals. It’s clear that distribution of crimes and the behaviours of criminals show certain spatial regularities, therefore, a geographical approach can be used to discover these offenders. In the following parts of the article the author presents theoretical and methodological foundations of geographical profiling, determinants of the effectiveness of spatial analyses and principles of creating geoprofiles. Based on the literature under review, criticism and limitations of the use of geographic profiling will be presented, but also the effectiveness of this method as an investigative technique will be demonstrated.
PL
Głównym celem artykułu jest przedstawienie podstaw profilowania geograficznego, jako metody mającej zastosowanie w analizach przestrzennych sporządzanych na potrzeby wykrywania sprawców przestępstw. Wychodząc z założenia, że rozmieszczenie przestępstw i zachowania sprawców wykazują pewne prawidłowości przestrzenne, wykorzystuje się podejście geograficzne w procesie wykrywania tych sprawców. W kolejnych częściach artykułu przedstawione zostały podstawy teoretyczno-metodologiczne profilowania geograficznego, uwarunkowania skuteczności prowadzenia analiz przestrzennych, zasady generowania geoprofili. Na podstawie analizowanej literatury przedstawiona została krytyka i ograniczenia stosowania profilowania geograficznego, ale także dowiedziona została efektywność tej metody jako techniki śledczej.
EN
The article has a character of the review and concerns Polish publications on human security in the city. It begins with distinction of research directions in crime geography and the review of definitions of the sense of security. Next, selected Polish publications on the human security in the city and their results are presented. The following issues are discussed in the paper: 1) good and bad neighborhoods as a spatial stereotypes, 2) a sense of security vs. the type of building area, 3) a sense of security in the public places, 4) a sense of security in the neighborhood, 5) a sense of security vs. time of day, and 6) a sense of security vs. socio-demographic characteristics.
PL
Praca ma charakter przeglądowy i dotyczy polskich publikacji podejmujących problematykę poczucia bezpieczeństwa człowieka w przestrzeni miasta. Analizowano następujące zagadnienia: 1) dobre i złe dzielnice jako stereotypy przestrzenne, 2) poczucie bezpieczeństwa a typ zabudowy, 3) poczucie bezpieczeństwa w miejscach publicznych, 4) poczucie bezpieczeństwa w sąsiedztwie, 5) poczucie bezpieczeństwa a pora dnia oraz 6) poczucie bezpieczeństwa a cechy demograficzno-społeczne.
EN
Nowadays geography can do much more in crime and delinquency research than only mapping. Since 70s of the 20th century various research methods have been developed by scientists dealing with geography of crime. The computer tools, including GIS software were the basis for that process. In the paper author presents following methods and research techniques: thematic maps (graphical representation of spatial data, which enables to built geographical basic data models), hot spot analysis (pointing places with high crime concentration), spatial autocorrelation (spatial identification of crime concentration), spatial regression (analysis of crime and other accompanying phenomena), ProMap – prospective mapping (prediction of the most probable places where crimes might be committed), and geographical profiling (element of psychological profiling thanks to which identification of places connected with criminals is possible).
PL
Potrzeba zastosowania geograficznego podejścia do badań przestępczości została zauważona jeszcze w XIX w., kiedy stwierdzono, że przestępczość jest zjawiskiem, którego dystrybucja w przestrzeni nie jest równomierna. Obecnie w badaniach przestępczości geografia ma do odegrania zdecydowanie większą rolę niż tylko przedstawianie na mapach zróżnicowania przestrzennego liczby dokonywanych przestępstw. Poczynając od lat 70. ubiegłego wieku, w ramach geografii przestępczości rozwinęły się różne metody badawcze. Jedną z głównych podstaw tego rozwoju było niewątpliwie pojawienie się na szerszą skalę sprzętu komputerowego oraz ewolucja oprogramowania GIS. W artykule przedstawiono takie metody i techniki badań, jak: mapy tematyczne, analiza hot spotów, autokorelacja przestrzenna, regresja przestrzenna, ProMap – mapy przestępczości potencjalnej i profilowanie geograficzne.
PL
Prezentowany artykuł poświęcony jest wykorzystaniu w socjologii prawa oraz kryminologii środowiskowej jednej z nowoczesnych metod obliczeniowych przydatnych do badania dużych zbiorów danych – analizy skupień (grupowania; klasteryzacji). Metoda ta pozwala na podzielenie zbioru obserwacji na ustaloną liczbę podzbiorów takich, że elementy tego samego podzbioru są do siebie możliwie podobne, a elementy różnych podzbiorów – możliwie odmienne. Jeśli dane dotyczą położenia geograficznego, na przykład umiejscowienia przestępstw, rezultatem wykorzystania analizy skupień będzie podział obszaru na ustaloną liczbę wewnętrznie spójnych rejonów według zobiektywizowanego kryterium. Podzielenie badanego terytorium na mniejsze części tradycyjnie, w dużym stopniu arbitralnych, takich jak na przykład podział administracyjny. z zastosowaniem klasteryzacji wydaje się być lepszym rozwiązaniem od kryteriów stosowanych W pracy przedstawiono szczegółową charakterystykę hierarchicznych metod analizy skupień, a następnie wykorzystano metody kombinatoryczną k-średnich oraz hierarchiczną Warda do podziału zbioru danych o zgłoszeniach przestępstw w mieście Baltimore w latach 2014–2019. Wykazano, że powstały w ten sposób podział różni się w sposób znaczący od podziału administracyjnego Baltimore, a także że zwiększanie liczby grup powstających jako wynik analizy skupień prowadzi do pożądanego w pewnych przypadkach wzrostu wariancji zmiennych opisujących strukturę przestępczości w poszczególnych częściach miasta. Utworzone przy użyciu klasteryzacji podziały wykorzystano także do zweryfikowania hipotezy o odmienności struktury przestępczości w różnych obszarach Baltimore. Głównym celem pracy jest zachęcenie do stosowania w badaniach społecznych nowoczesnych metod analizy danych oraz pokazanie, że analiza skupień może być cennym narzędziem w kryminologicznych i socjologicznoprawnych analizach poświęconych relacji między prawem a przestrzenią.
EN
This paper is focused on some of the possibilities of the use of cluster analysis (clustering) in criminology and the sociology of law. Cluster analysis makes it possible to divide even a large dataset into a specified number of subsets in such a way that the resulting subsets are as homogenous as possible, and at the same time differ from each other substantially. When analysing geographical data, e.g. describing the location of crimes, the result of cluster analysis is a division of a territory into a certain number of coherent areas based on an objective criterion. The division of the territory under study into smaller parts is more insightful when the clustering method is applied compared to an arbitrary division into official administrative units. The paper provides a detailed description of hierarchical cluster analysis methods and an example of using the Ward’s hierarchical method and the k-means combinational method to divide data on crime reports in the city of Baltimore between 2014 and 2019. The analysis demonstrates that the resulting division differs considerably from the administrative division of Baltimore, and that increasing the number of groups emerging as a result of cluster analysis leads to an increase of variance of variables describing the structure of crime in individual parts of the city. The divisions obtained using clustering are used to verify the hypothesis on differences in crime structure in different areas of Baltimore. The main aim of the paper is to encourage the use of modern methods of data analysis in social sciences and to present the usefulness of cluster analysis in criminology and the sociology of law research.
EN
The article presents research constituting an attempt at verification of theories historically originating from the Chicago School of Sociology and the ecological approach within criminology, the supporters of which focus on the criminal offence itself and on its environmental conditions. This group of theories belongs to the environmental criminology. Criminological deliberations on the crime, carried out in the spirit of the contemporary environmental trend, are based on the assumption that the occurrence of a criminal offence is determined by four necessary elements: the legal norm that is breached, the offender, the object of the crime (victim or target) as well as the time and space in which the crime is committed. The object of interest of the environmental criminology is in the first place the space and time dimension of the act, in which the remaining elements meet. The discussed research was based on the rou-tine activity theory, the rational choice perspective and the crime pattern theory. The basic theoretical assumption is that the volume of crime is influenced by the number of crime opportunities. According to the routine activity theory, a crime opportunity occurs at the moment of convergence of a likely offender and a suitable target in the absence of a capable guardian. The first hypothesis assumes that the crime opportunity is a necessary condition for occurrence of a criminal offence, including that related to violence. The second hypothesis was based on the assumption that crime opportunities are not evenly distributed in time and space. We should therefore assume that not every object (person or thing) is a suitable target in the event of a concrete criminal act. Not every environment constitutes scenery conducive to commitment of a given crime. In other words, there are areas with higher concentration of crime. The third hypothesis was related to an assumption of the crime patterns concept relating to the offenders’ daily life patterns. It says that perpetrators search for suitable targets in areas that are well-known to them – in the vicinity of their workplace, school or place of their leisure activities. The offender’s journey to crime covers relatively small distances, avoiding only the area closest to their place of residence (the so-called buffer zone). The spatial and social characteristics were examined in chosen territorial units being three districts of a large city – Warsaw. The research area covered the jurisdiction of the Dis-trict Court for the city of Warsaw Praga-Północ, i.e. the administrative boundary precincts of the following districts: Praga Północ, Białołęka and Targówek. The verification of the afore-mentioned hypotheses took place based on an analysis of court records concerning 694 offenders, convicted in 2006 in criminal procedures of acts belonging to the jurisdiction of the said court.
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