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EN
In this paper has been specifi cally considered the issue of the potential and the actual syntactic ambiguity (or syntactic homonymy) which has led to the results indicating that the existence of ambiguity in syntax is not negligible, and that the role of the context in the analysis of the syntactic ambiguity is not as it has been assumed. A selected number of examples have been presented to native speakers in order to assess the meaning. The results of this questionnaire show that the native speakers have confi rmed the ambiguity of all the sentences. Ambiguity has been additionally analyzed through the calculation of the degree of ambiguity (i.e., determination of the stability of meaning) and the index of the degree of ambiguity (i.e., determination of the consistency of meaning).
EN
Conversion as an example of grammar in a dictionary (as exemplified by Slovene)Conversion in Slovene and other Slavic languages is not merely a marginal phenomenon. It spreads mainly with the borrowing of new lexicon. In so far as the borrowed lexicon remains indeclinable even after it has been borrowed, it preserves or extends the syntactic possibilities and therefore the conversion possibilities in the recipient language as well. As a new lexicalization, conversion depends on the possibilities of a shift from one syntactic role to another – and in this regard, it can be complete or incomplete/partial. Examples of complete conversion are bomba film ‘a bomb movie’ (< Film je bomba < bomba < avto bomba – < The movie is the bomb ‘very successful’ < a bomb ‘surprise’ < a car bomb ‘an explosive’), vikend hiša ‘a weekend house’ (hiša kot vikend < Hiša je vikend ‘počitniška’ < hiša vikend < vikend ‘prost konec tedna’ – a house as a weekend house < The house is a weekend ‘vacation’ house < weekend house < weekend ‘the end of the week’), as opposed to vikendhiša ‘a weekendhouse’ (< hiša za vikend ‘a house for the weekend’), and veliko hiš ‘many houses’ (→ veliko govori ‘s/he has many stories to tell’), which are not formed by conversion. An example of incomplete conversion is zakon ‘the law’ (a full conversion would also render usage like *zakon film ‘a law film’, which is not (as yet) attested; the conversation has only gone as far as Film je zakon ‘zelo dober’ < zakon ‘pravilo’ < zakon ‘pravni predpis’ – The movie is the law ‘very good’ < a law ‘a rule’ < a law ‘a legal act’), as opposed to formations not created through conversion, which nevertheless might also feature a noun as the first part of the compound, e.g., golfigrišče ‘golfcourse’ (< igrišče za golf ‘a course for playing golf’, whereas the base *Igrišče je golf. ‘The course is golf.’ is nonsensical). The same holds true for the interjection in horukpoezija ‘oomphpoetry,’ which also was not formed by conversion. Conversion is therefore the final stage in the process of the formation of a new lexeme: degrammaticalization of a particular word form > lexicalization > conversion. What conversion, univerbation, and homonymy have in common in the case of existing vocabulary and its use, is the economy of language in the sense that a particular expression is semantically utilized to its maximum. The expression – syntax – meaning relationship within a given lexeme, along with conversion as a grammatical occurrence, can be presented most thoroughly in a dictionary. Konwersja jako przykład gramatyki w słowniku (na przykładzie języka słoweńskiego)Konwersja w słoweńskim i innych językach słowiańskich nie jest zjawiskiem marginalnym; spotyka się ją coraz częściej, przede wszystkim za sprawą zapożyczania nowej leksyki. Kiedy leksyka ta pozostaje nieodmienna zarówno w języku oryginalnym, jak i docelowym, przyczynia się do zachowania i rozszerzenia możliwości składniowych, a zatem także możliwości konwersji w języku dokonującym zapożyczenia. Jako leksykalizacja konwersja jest zależna od potencjału zmiany jednej roli syntaktycznej w inną – i z tego punktu widzenia może być pełna lub niepełna/częściowa. Przykładami pełnej konwersji są: bomba film ‘bombowy film’ (< Film je bomba < bomba < avto bomba – Film jest bomba ‘cieszy się dużym powodzeniem’ < bomba ‘coś niespodziewanego’ < auto bomba ‘środek wybuchowy’), vikend hiša ‘domek letniskowy’ (hiša kot vikend < Hiša je vikend ‘počitniška’ < hiša vikend < vikend ‘prost konec tedna’ – dom jako domek letniskowy < Ten dom jest domkiem letniskowym. < domek letniskowy < weekend ‘po prostu koniec tygodnia’) w odróżnieniu od vikendhiša ‘dom na weekend’ (< hiša za vikend ‘dom na weekend’) i veliko hiš ‘wiele domów’ (→ veliko govori ‘dużo mówi, ma dużo do powiedzenia’), które nie powstały w wyniku konwersji. Przykładem niepełnej konwersji jest zakon ‘prawo’ (nie jest (jak dotąd) możliwe powiedzenie *zakon film ‘prawo film’, proces konwersji osiągnął etap Film je zakon ‘zelo dober’ < zakon ‘pravilo’ < zakon ‘pravni predpis’ – Film jest prawo ‘bardzo dobry’ < prawo ‘prawidło’ < prawo ‘przepis prawny’) w odróżnieniu od konstrukcji nieutworzonych za pomocą konwersji, które tym niemniej mogą także rozpoczynać się od rzeczownika, np. golfigrišče ‘pole golfowe’ (< igrišče za golf ‘pole do gry w golfa’, nie ma natomiast sensu zdanie *Igrišče je golf. ‘Pole jest golfem.’). Podobnie rzecz ma się z konstrukcją z wykrzyknikiem horukpoezija ‘hej-ho poezja, poezja zagrzewająca do wspólnej pracy’. Konwersja jest zatem ostatnim stadium procesu tworzenia nowego leksemu: degramatykalizacja > leksykalizacja > konwersja. Konwersję, uniwerbizację i homonimię w odniesieniu do zastanego słownictwa łączy to, że przyczyniają się one do ekonomii języka, pozwalając na maksymalne semantyczne wykorzystanie danego wyrażenia. Relację w obrębie danego leksemu między ekspresją, składnią i znaczeniem oraz konwersję jako zjawisko gramatyczne można przedstawić w najpełniejszy sposób w słowniku.
EN
Polysemy, the phenomenon whereby a linguistic unit exhibits multiple distinct yet related meanings, has always been a topic of great interest for both lexical semanticists and lexicographers. The primary aim of this paper is to investigate what role context plays in the interpretation of the different senses of polysemous lexical items.
EN
The paper is aimed at the problem of transformational word-formation meant as a dynamic process of formation of new expressions on the basis of linguistic models using entire forms of already existing expressions, which become motivated expressions that way. This problem was taken into consideration from this viewpoint often defined in linguistics as polysemy. One lexical unit was analyzed on the basis of many core glossaries and a homonym dictionary, and three was an attempt to falsify the theory of polysemy and substitute it with the theory of homonimoidality seen as a phenomenon of formal similarity of xpressions having different semantic features and retained derivational features (one of the expressions is a motivational one, another – motivated). The paper also presents a detailed description with a scheme of motivation of such lexical transformations of the entity, which is determined by a greater semantic elasticity. In the glossaries, the number of meanings for the lexical unit oscillated at 15–17 meanings but their definitions were different. The change in basic theory allowed both to distract and to order the semantic structure of homonimoids пройти.
EN
The paper is a review of homonymy (in a broad sense of the term) in two Slavic languages: Polish and Belarusian. Different types of homonyms were described and compared. At the beginningof the article one can find many different Polish and Belarusian definitions of homonymy. The examples of homonyms were taken from dictionaries, books and films. The analysis showsthat homonyms in two Slavic languages are very similar but very strong difference one can find inaccent.
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Multivocity in Topics 1.15

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EN
This paper discusses Aristotle’s account of multivocity (πολλαχῶς/ πλεοναχῶς λέγεται) as expounded in Topics 1.15. This article argues that an inquiry into how many ways (ποσαχῶς) something is said becomes for Aristotle a tool of dialectical examination that he employs through­out his entire philosophical career: investigating the many/multiple ways (πολλαχῶς/πλεοναχῶς) something is said allows one to recognize the ambiguity of the term in question and, consequently, to construct an adequate definition of its referent. The present study reconstructs the various strategies for detecting ambiguity and discusses its differ­ent types. Subsequently, the paper accounts for why Aristotle moves so easily from words and their meanings to things and their essences. Finally, the article presents an analysis of the connection between the many ways something is said and the various categories it is predicated in. The considerations are supported by a new translation of Topics 1.15.
PL
This paper discusses Aristotle’s account of multivocity (πολλαχῶς/ πλεοναχῶς λέγεται) as expounded in Topics 1.15. This article argues that an inquiry into how many ways (ποσαχῶς) something is said becomes for Aristotle a tool of dialectical examination that he employs throughout his entire philosophical career: investigating the many/multiple ways (πολλαχῶς/πλεοναχῶς) something is said allows one to recognize the ambiguity of the term in question and, consequently, to construct an adequate definition of its referent. The present study reconstructs the various strategies for detecting ambiguity and discusses its different types. Subsequently, the paper accounts for why Aristotle moves so easily from words and their meanings to things and their essences. Finally, the article presents an analysis of the connection between the many ways something is said and the various categories it is predicated in. The considerations are supported by a new translation of Topics 1.15.
EN
The article presents the phenomena of polysemy and homonymy within the field of nominations defining love, eroticism, sex and narcotics in the modern Russian jargon. Although polysemous nominations appear in all the semantic groups presented in the article, polysemy is not a representative phenomenon in the modern Russian jargon. Homonymy is illustrated only by one pair of homonyms within the narcotic nominations.
EN
The exponents of the category of definiteness / indefiniteness and a certain type of expressive expressions in Bulgarian and PolishThe paper focuses on the functions of the pronoun exponents of the semantic category of definiteness / indefiniteness in Bulgarian examples of the following type: Свършихме я. Тънко я преда. Свърши се вашата, etc. Their reference to sentences such as Свършихме я тази работа. allows interpreting the function of the phrase as thematic. This type of sentences was confronted with examples such as Тя му я изтърси една… И ти ми ги говориш едни… The features of intonation and the semantic features of the double object phrase indicate its rhematic nature. Specific formal traits of such sentences, including the usage of the exponents of the category of definiteness / indefiniteness, are related with their expressive markedness.
PL
The text is dedicated to Professor Jerzy Kaliszan, an outstanding Polish researcher of homonymy in the Russian language, the author of significant monographs and the first Polish dictionary of Russian homographs. The article is a review of Polish academic literature on Russian homonymy including both intra- and interlinguistic aspects (relations between Polish and Russian). In the first part, the author outlines the most important theoretical and lexicographical studies of Polish scholars. The second part is devoted to a description of Jerzy Kaliszan’s achievements in the field of lexical and word-formation homonymy, including lexemes’ homography.
EN
This paper deals with Polish-Russian interlingual homonymy. Interlingual homonyms are understood as words which have similar pronunciation but do not share the same meaning in different languages. The investigated homonyms come from two dictionaries, Rosyjsko-polski słownik paraleli leksykalnych by Wladimir Dubiczynski, Marcelina Grabska and Ewa Komorowska (in preparation) and Rosyjsko-polski słownik homonimów międzyjęzykowych by Krzysztof Kusal. Taking the formal criterion into consideration, the analysis reveals the existence of complete homonyms (e.g. Russian УРÓК ‘lesson’ and Polish UROK ‘charm’) and partial homonyms (e.g. Russian ДИВÁН ‘sofa’ and Polish DYWAN ‘carpet’). Semantically speaking, it is possible to distinguish homonyms with opposite meanings (e.g. Russian ЗАПОМИНAНИЕ ‘remembering’ and Polish ZAPOMINANIE ‘forgetting’), homonyms with different scopes of meaning (e.g. Russian НЕДÉЛЯ ‘week’ and Polish NIEDZIELA ‘Monday’) and homonyms sharing the same root (e.g. Russian ЛЕНЬ ‘laziness’ and Polish LEŃ ‘lazy person’).
EN
On divergent etymologies of Polish and Lithuanian surnamesThe conflict of national Polish and Lithuanian historiographies typically involves divergent interpretations of the shared history, but it is seldom noticed that linguistic interpretations (including the onomastic ones) may be divergent too. These linguistic interpretations can also become a tool of language policy, especially of the policy focused on personal names. The present article analyses selected examples of genetically Lithuanian surnames currently in use in Poland which in some Polish linguistic sources are etymologised as genetically Polish, as well as – conversely – those of Polish origin which in some Lithuanian research are interpreted as genetically Lithuanian. Although inadvertent and accidental mistakes cannot be ruled out, in the case of homonymic surnames there is a visible tendency to give priority to native etymologies. It may be assumed that for the society at large, the origin of a surname somehow implies the nationality of its bearer; in the case when the researchers’ attitudes are nationalistic, this fact may be used as an argument in public debates whose scope far exceeds that of onomastics. O rozbieżnych etymologiach nazwisk polskich i litewskichKonflikt narodowych historiografii polskiej i litewskiej zazwyczaj wiąże się z rozbieżnymi interpretacjami wspólnej historii, ale rzadziej się zauważa, że podobnie rozbieżne są też interpretacje językoznawcze, w tym onomastyczne. One także mogą stać się narzędziem polityki językowej, a w szczególności polityki, której przedmiotem są nazwy osobowe. Niniejszy artykuł przedstawia i analizuje wybrane przypadki używanych współcześnie w Polsce nazwisk pochodzenia litewskiego, które w niektórych polskich pracach językoznawczych są etymologizowane jako genetycznie polskie, a także – odwrotnie – tych nazwisk polskiego pochodzenia, które w niektórych źródłach litewskich interpretowane są jako etymologicznie litewskie. Choć nie można oczywiście wykluczyć niezamierzonych i przypadkowych omyłek, w przypadku nazwisk homonimicznych wyraźnie zauważalna jest tendencja do oddawania pierwszeństwa etymologii rodzimej. Wolno przypuszczać, że w odbiorze społecznym geneza nazwiska w jakimś stopniu implikuje narodowość jego nosiciela; przy nacjonalistycznym nastawieniu badaczy fakt ten może być używany jako argument w publicznych debatach, których zasięg dalece wykracza poza onomastykę.
EN
Studies into fiction and its linguistic specifies are frequently done from the perspective of comprehension. In this study comprehension means finding and construing senses. Therefore the entire text is the area for building up senses. The sense of the text is explained as a configuration of ties and relationships among various elements in a situation emerging as a result of some activity or communication at the moment when that situation is being created or recreated by a person who adequately understands the text. In the article the figurative sense of the prose by Boris Pasternak and the semantic diversity of the language in the prose by Henry James and the comedy by William Shakespeare are shown. In prose semantic vagueness and polysemantic ambiguity are connected. The process of understanding the texts of implied sense is described. A complementary principle in the system of language tunes down and brings together the multicoloured canvas of the text. The naturalistic meticulousness is contrasted to the overall whole. Determination arouses the reader’ s curiosity and encourages him to look for the inexplicitly expressed sense of the text. Today, given the available findings of extensive scholarly research, it is imperative to probe into the issues surrounding sense from new offbeat angles and vantage points.
EN
This study aims to show what semantic and syntactic features has alexical unit барем in the contemporary Macedonian language. On the basis of confrontation of meaning and scope of the use of the tested particles in Polish and Macedonian, the author points to the similarities and differences in both languages. The results of the analysis show that Polish has richer lexical inventory. They show the versatility of particle барем in Macedonian and also prove that барем is one-segment lexi­cal unit, which is used as aparticle in the sentences and has no homonyms in Macedonian.
MK
Овaа статија има за цел да го покаже какви карактеристични функции — семантички и синтаксички има зборот барем во современиот македонски јазик. Врз основа на конфрон­тација на значењето и опсегот на употребата на испитуваната честичка во полски имаке­донски јазик, авторката ги укажува сличностите и разликите во двата јазика. Резултатите од анализата покажуваат побогат инвентар во полската лексика и, исто така, флексибилност на честичката барем во македонскиот јазик и докажуваат дека барем е еден сегмент лексички единици, кои служат во реченицата само како честичка, нема хомоними во македонски јазик.
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Some Facts on Homonymy in Polish

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EN
This paper focuses on the investigation into homonymy in Polish, taking into account the existing definitions of this phenomenon. It presents the origin of the word HOMONYMY together with its types with numerous examples. Some of the definitions have been exemplified via lexemes taken from other languages in order to clarify the notion of interlingual homonymy.
PL
Praca ta skupia swoją uwagę na analizie procesu homonimii w języku polskim, podając funkcjonujące definicje tego zjawiska. Prezentuje ona również pochodzenie słowa „homonimia’’ i przedstawia różne rodzaje homonimii. Niektóre z definicji opatrzone są przykładami z innych języków w celu głębszego zaprezentowania homonimii międzyjęzykowej.
PL
Artykuł ma na celu ukazanie głównych źródeł wieloznaczności w tłumaczeniu chińskich umów na język polski. Chiński język prawa jest często podobny do chińskiego języka potocznego, co przyczynia się do zjawiska wieloznaczności w chińskich umowach. Autorka ukazuje przykłady polisemii i homonimii, które to powodujące trudności i niejednoznaczność w tłumaczeniu. Znaczenie chińskich znaków zależne jest bardzo często od kontekstu tekstowego. Jednakże jeśli tłumacz nie zna kontekstu, w którym jest zanurzony dany tekst, trudno mu dokonać przekładu dobrej jakości. Duża ilość homofonów w języku chińskim stanowi niekiedy problem, szczególnie w odniesieniu do umów zawieranych w formie ustnej, nie pisemnie. W artykule zaprezentowano ponadto różne funkcje gramatyczne wybranych terminów języka chińskiego, które to występują w umowach w nie zmienionej formie morfologicznej. Takie cechy lingwistyczne języka chińskiego, jak brak rozróżnienia pomiędzy rzeczownikami w liczbie pojedynczej i w liczbie mnogiej, brak fleksji, brak kategorii gramatycznej czasu i aspektu mogą również powodować niejasności w rozumieniu i przekładzie chińskich umów. Poza tym zrozumienie takich tekstów jest niekiedy skazane na niepowodzenie ze względu na opuszczenia i zdania eliptyczne. Autorka ukazuje także różnice w znaczeniu terminów, które pozornie mają to samo znaczenie w języku polskim, jak i w chińskim, jednak w rzeczywistości mają różne pola semantyczne.
EN
Th is paper discusses the main sources of ambiguity in Chinese-Polishtranslation of the contract legal language. Legal Chinese is very often the same as ordinary formal Chinese and that fact causes ambiguity in Chinese contracts. Th e author focuses on polysemy and homonymy which make the interpretation of legal language diffi cult and ambiguous. The meaning of Chinese characters depends on the textual context. However, when an interpreter does not know the background information of translated legal texts, it is very diffi cult to achieve a high quality legal translation. The abundance of homophones in Chinese language also poses a problem, especially in the case of contracts concluded in words, not in writing. The paper further presents different grammatical functions of Chinese terms encountered in contracts without a morphological change. Such linguistic features of Chinese language as: the absence of distinction between singular and plural nouns, lack of infl ection, no grammatical categories of tense andaspect cause ambiguity and vagueness in interpreting the Chinese agreements. Moreover, the understanding of such texts is sometimes incorrect due to omissions and elliptical sentences.The author also shows the diff erences in the meaning of terms, which apparently signify the same entities and concepts in Polish and Chinese legal languages but in fact diff er signifi cantly.
EN
The paper introduces the DeriNet lexical database, which includes more than 969,000 Czech words interconnected by 718,000 links corresponding to derivational relations (relations between a base word and a word derived from it). Derivational relations were identified by semi-automatic procedures and manual annotation. As the DeriNet network is fully compatible with a large inflectional dictionary of Czech (MorfFlex CZ), it can be used as a resource for an integrating approach to derivational and inflectional morphology of Czech both in linguistic research and in natural language processing.
EN
The article deals with interlingual similarities and the phenomenon of false friends in Slavic plant names. In all Slavic dialects and in the history of Slavic languages it is observed that one name may refer to several species of plants, and a given species may have even dozens of names. As analyses show, it is not uncommon for these names to be formally and semantically compatible across large areas where Slavic languages are spoken. In the conclusion of the paper, it is suggested that comparative studies of Slavic materials always require great caution to prevent possible mistakes in identification. Formal similarity does not guarantee the adequacy of the content, i.e. the true meaning, as in some cases we deal with complete equivalence of the names and their designates in the given Slavic languages, and sometimes the names constitute false friends.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy podobieństw międzyjęzykowych i zjawiska false friends w słowiańskich nazwach roślin. We wszystkich słowiańskich dialektach i w historii języków słowiańskich można zaobserwować, że jedna nazwa może odnosić się do kilku gatunków roślin, a dany gatunek może mieć nawet kilkadziesiąt nazw. Jak pokazują analizy, nierzadko nazwy te są zgodne formalnie i semantycznie na dużych obszarach, na których mówi się językami słowiańskimi. W podsumowaniu artykułu zasugerowano, że badania porównawcze materiałów słowiańskich zawsze wymagają dużej ostrożności, aby zapobiec ewentualnym błędom w identyfikacji. Podobieństwo formalne nie gwarantuje adekwatności treści, czyli prawdziwego znaczenia, gdyż w niektórych przypadkach mamy do czynienia z całkowitą równoważnością nazw i ich desygnatów w danych językach słowiańskich, a czasem nazwy takie stanowią false friends.
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Rana w językach świata

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EN
In accordance with the saussurean principle of arbitrariness of the linguistic sign the word rana has manifold senses in the languages of the world. From among numerous examples the author pays special attention to the Romance rana ‘frog’ and the Slavonic (in particular Polish) rana ‘wound’. The discussion concerns the earliest attestations of the word in Old Polish, modern phrases and collocations, cross­‍‑linguistic literary and cultural associations and homonyms.
PL
Zgodnie z saussurowską zasadą dowolności znaku językowego słowo rana ma różnorodne znaczenia w językach świata. Spośród licznych przykładów uwagę autora przykuwa przede wszystkim rana romańska, czyli ‘żaba’ oraz rana słowiańska, zwłaszcza polska. Omówione są najstarsze wystąpienia tego słowa w okresie staropolskim, współczesne kolokacje i frazeologizmy, skojarzenia literackie i kulturowe w aspekcie komparatystycznym, a takżehomonimy.
PL
W kognitywnej teorii homonimii i polisemii antroponimicznej uwzględniono zarówno standardową, jaki i rozszerzoną wersją prototypu, co pozwoliło wyodrębnić w płaszczyźnie doonimicznej homonimy nazwotwórcze, tj. tożsame formalnie onimy należące do jednej lub kilku kategorii kognitywnych, i polisemy nazwotwórcze, tj. tożsame formalnie onimy należące tylko do jednej kategorii kognitywnej. Zgodnie z rozszerzoną kognitywną wersją prototypu nazwy własne i apelatywy skupione pod jedną etykietą nominacyjną należy rozpatrywać jako jednostki polisemiczne. Termin wieloznaczność uznano za nadrzędny, obejmujący zarówno zjawiska wielomotywacyjności, homonimii i polisemii antroponimicznej. Natomiast rozróżnienie wielomotywacyjności od homonimii czy polisemii antroponimicznej możliwe jest na podstawie kryterium semantyczno-referencjalnego.
EN
In the cognitive theory of anthroponymic homonymy and polysemy, both the standard and the extended versions of the prototype were taken into account, and that made it possible to distinguish on a to-onymic plane name-forming homonyms, i.e. formally identical onyms belonging to one or several cognitive categories and name-forming polysemes, i.e. formally identical onyms that belong only to one cognitive category. According to the extended cognitive version of the prototype, proper names and appelatives focused under a single nomination label should be considered polysemic units. The term ambiguity has been recognized as superior, encompassing the phenomena of multi-motivation, anthroponymic homonymy and polysemy. The distinction between multi-motivation and anthroponymic homonymy or polysemy is possible on the basis of the semantic-referential criterion.
EN
The article includes a linguistic analysis: semantic and formal (morphological and phonetic-graphic) of nearly 330 surnames of Russian origin and more than 370 Polish surnames, which have been formed on the basis of the Ukrainian, Belorussian and Russian root dub- and Polish dąb- // dęb- (“oak”), excerpted from Słownik nazwisk współcześnie w Polsce używanych (“The Dictionary of Surnames Contemporarily Used in Poland”) from the years 1992-1994. The analysis showed qualitative and quantitative similarities and differences between those two anthroponomasticons and their mutual interferences. They are especially visible in the process of Polonization of Russian surnames, set in a broader context of Polish enculturation of Russian residents in historical Poland. Semantic and formal richness of both anthroponymic families with the root dąb (“oak”) confirmed an important position of dąb in Russian languages as well as in Polish, reflecting the meaning of this tree in the economic and cultural life of man.
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