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EN
This article aims to explain the seemingly paradoxical process of the strengthening of the Scottish National Party in the period immediately after the Scottish independence referendum in 2014. The main reasons are the processes of polarization and consolidation of the SNP and unionist parties around the binary choice - yes or no to independence. The most important circumstances contributing to the phenomenon include: growing aversion to the institutions of British democracy; crisis of the Scottish Labour Party in terms of organization, personnel and program; popularity of the new leader and the effective change of leadership within the SNP, as well as far-reaching effects of the Unionists' campaign referred to as "Project Fear". Additionally, we can also mention: surge in civic activism as a result of the referendum campaign, a more favorable attitude of the media, austerity policies of the Tory government in London, country-level crisis of the Liberal Democrats and tactical considerations: a widespread expectation of a House of Commons without a one-party majority and the territorial distribution of electoral support for the SNP - beneficial in the context of a majoritarian system. 2015 is the year when the political momentum in Scotland changed, and it clearly favoured SNP and supporters of independence. The results of the independence referendum were only for a short time widely regarded as conclusive for decades. When making predictions one should remember that Scottish possibilities of independence are determined not only by factors such as national identity and constitutional disputes, but also by assessment of the functioning of political parties and public policies, and increasingly by the international context (United Kingdom European Union membership referendum).
EN
The paper focuses on the involvement of Polish migrants in the Scottish Independence Referendum of 2014. Based on the available evidence, it argues that political apathy and the alienation of migrants in their receiving countries should not be taken for granted. Exempli-fied by the active stance of the “Scottish” Poles, the paper demonstrates that the migrant groups’ political participation may depend on a country-specific nexus of factors to do with discursive construction of both their economic interests and civic belonging.
EN
The aim of this article was to present the referendum on independence within the framework of the current definitions and typologies of referendum, and to present the main doubts concerning the political conditions and the function of the independence referendum. The referendum on independence in most cases is considered to be a particular instrument of direct democracy and a key step in the process of gaining statehood by the ethno-regional movements. Such a type of referendum should be defined as popular vote in which citizens (with voting rights) of a certain territory may declare their will to establish a new state through secession. The independence referendum is a concept in relation to which there is a significant disproportion between the number of empirical studies in the form of a case study and the number of studies of more general character and theoretical ambitions. The key issues concerning the analysis of this category of referenda are: the referendum procedure - the way of referendum initiative, the preconditions, the persons entitled, the content of the question or the interpretation of the results. It is important to remember about the possibility of a constitutional regulations of referendum, although its implementation is influenced by current factors and tactical political decisions by actors, just like ordinary public votes.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu było ujęcie referendum niepodległościowego w ramach obecnych w nauce definicji i typologii oraz ukazanie głównych wątpliwości dotyczących politologicznych uwarunkowań oraz funkcji referendum niepodległościowego. Referendum niepodległościowe w większości przypadków uchodzi za szczególny instrument demokracji bezpośredniej i kluczowy etap procesu uzyskiwania własnej państwowości przez ruchy etnoregionalistyczne. Należy je zdefiniować jako głosowanie o charakterze powszechnym, w którym obywatele danego terytorium posiadający czynne prawo wyborcze mogą zadeklarować wolę utworzenia nowego państwa poprzez secesję. Referendum niepodległościowe jest pojęciem, w odniesieniu do którego widoczna jest istotna dysproporcja między liczbą badań empirycznych w formie studium przypadku a liczbą studiów o bardziej generalnym charakterze i teoretycznych ambicjach. Kluczowe problemy dotyczące analizy tej kategorii referendów to: określenie procedury referendum – sposobu inicjacji, warunków wstępnych, osób uprawnionych, treści pytania czy interpretacji wyników. Pamiętać należy o możliwości ustrojowego umocowania instytucji referendum, choć jej realizacja podlega wpływowi czynników bieżących oraz taktycznych decyzji politycznych aktorów, tak jak zwykłe głosowania powszechne.
PL
Wydarzenia mające miejsce w Katalonii w 2017 r. w związku z referendum niepodległościowym stanowiły kulminację dążeń niepodległościowych tego regionu na przestrzeni ostatnich stu lat. Co więcej, miały one swoje źródło jeszcze w XVII i XVIII w. Wieloaspektowe odmienności Katalończyków sprawiły, że naród ten od lat dąży do coraz większej, uwzględniającej jego potrzeby autonomii regionalnej, aż wreszcie postanowił sięgnąć po niepodległość. Artykuł ten traktuje o dążeniach niepodległościowych Katalonii w XX i XXI w. umieszczając je w kontekście referendum niepodległościowego z 1 października 2017 r. Autor przedstawia najważniejsze wydarzenia polityczne, społeczne i ekonomiczne Hiszpanii w ostatnich stu latach, a następnie omawia wyżej wymienione referendum. Całość wieńczą prognozy dotyczące możliwych przyszłych wydarzeń w tymże regionie.
EN
Events that took place in Catalonia in 2017 in conjunction with the independence referendum were the culmination of the aspirations of independence of this region in the last one hundred years. What is more, they had their origins in 17th and 18th centuries. Multifaceted diversities of Catalonians caused the situation in which Catalonians sought to bigger autonomy, taking into account their regional aspirations, and eventually they decided to go for independence. The article is about the independence aspirations of Catalonia in 17th and 18th centuries, placing them in the context of independence referendum from 1st October 2017. The author presents the most important political, social and economic events in the last one hundred years, and then talks out the referendum mentioned above. The whole is crowned with forecasts on possible events in the future in this region.
PL
We wrześniu 2014 r. odbyło się w Szkocji referendum niepodległościowe. Kilka lat później, już po przełomowym referendum w sprawie członkostwa Zjednoczonego Królestwa w Unii Europejskiej, Nicola Sturgeon, pełniąca wówczas funkcję szefowej Szkockiej Partii Narodowej i Pierwszej Minister Szkocji, stała się twarzą kampanii na rzecz drugiego referendum na drodze do odzyskania przez Szkocję statusu suwerennego państwa. Padła nawet konkretna obietnica przeprowadzenia głosowania w październiku 2023 r. Kolejne brytyjskie rządy zdecydowanie sprzeciwiły się jednak wysiłkom Edynburga. W niniejszym artykule podjęto próbę analizy ustrojowo-prawnego i politycznego kontekstu tego swoistego ‘przeciągania liny’ pomiędzy władzami w Londynie i Edynburgu, z uwzględnieniem procesów dewolucji, niepodległościowych aspiracji Szkotów oraz konsekwencji Brexitu. Podstawowy problem badawczy dotyczy określenia ustrojowych warunków i przeszkód, jakie towarzyszą mieszkańcom Szkocji na ich drodze do niepodległości, szczególnie w związku z coraz bardziej antagonistycznym układem relacji pomiędzy brytyjskimi a szkockimi ośrodkami władzy.
EN
In the 2014 referendum Scottish voters were asked whether Scotland should be an independent country. Several years and one Brexit referendum later Nicola Sturgeon, the then popular and charismatic leader of the Scottish National Party and First Minister of Scotland, was making a convincing case for another independence referendum. She even proposed October 2023 as its date. But the United Kingdom government and successive Conservative prime ministers have consistently said “no”. This article analyses that constitutional and political ‘tug-of-war’ in the context of devolution settlement, pro-independence aspirations of Scottish people, consequences of Brexit, and growing tensions between Edinburgh and London. The most fundamental constitutional question within that frame of reference is what Scotland’s viable path to independence should be and in other words, under what circumstances the independence vision could be implemented.
PL
The article presents the political, social, ethnical and economic situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina 15 years after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The agreement officially finished the war in this country. The goal of this article is to describe the complexity of the internal situation and the problems of the construction of a stable and independent state. The article discusses an extremely complicated political system, that was imposed in the peace agreement, which alongside with different political businesses of three constitutional nations is leading to the decision-making paralysis and makes stable ruling is making impossible. The role of the High Representative UN/EU was also described. The role is to coordinate the activity of international community and is indeed exercising the sovereign power in the state contributing to therecognition that Bosnia, although is an independent and sovereign state, actually became an international protectorate. Various opinions about the effectiveness of the High Representative and the legitimacy of taken actions were presented. The fact that (between 1992–2004) NATO forces (executing military missions) and (from 2004) European forces (executing civil-military missions) stationed in Bosnia-Herzegovina is not without meaning. The author is also paying attention to the fact that a complicated and strained ethnic situation is a source of stagnation in BiH and individual constitutional nations have completely different expectations and political businesses which is making impossible to form a civil nation (national) and is still jeopardizing the state’s territorial integrity.
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