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EN
This paper presents the results of a quantitative study that explores two factors contributing to reading comprehension of domain specific texts, namely level of language proficiency and background knowledge. Overall, 32 students participated in the study by taking two custom-designed reading comprehension tests. The test scores were further  analyzed using SPSS statistical software. The results of statistical tests revealed the differences between study groups as well as the effects of compensation. More precisely, the most proficient group scored higher on almost all tests and completed the tests more quickly than the remaining groups. The statistical tools used to test the data showed that there are significant differences between all the groups in their performance on Proficiency Level Test and in timing. Hence, our hypothesis concerning the influence of background knowledge and language proficiency on reading comprehension of domain-specific texts has been confirmed. Finally, the paper discusses limitations of the study as well as implications for EFL teaching.
EN
Despite major advances in research on language learning strategies, there are still areas that have received only scant attention, and one of them is undoubtedly learning grammar. The paper contributes to the paucity of empirical investigations in this domain by presenting the findings of a study which sought to investigate the relationship between the use of grammar learning strategies (GLS) reported by 142 English Department students and target language attainment, operationalized as their performance in a practical grammar course and the end-of-the-year examination. Information about GLS use was obtained by means of a tool that was designed on the basis of a theoretical scheme proposed by Oxford, Rang Lee and Park (2007) in which GLS are divided into three categories depending on whether they represent implicit learning with focus on form, explicit inductive learning and explicit deductive learning. The analysis failed to find a strong positive relationship between the use of GLS and achievement, irrespective of the level of the BA program, or statistically significant differences in this respect between lower-level and higher-level participants. The highest, albeit very weak, correlation was identified between the use of GLS associated with explicit deductive learning and grammar course grades, which testifies to the traditional nature of instruction the subjects receive. The findings serve as a basis for putting forward a handful of recommendations for learning, teaching and testing grammar as well as directions for future studies into grammar learning strategies.
EN
Despite major advances in research on language learning strategies, there are still areas that have received only scant attention, and one of them is undoubtedly learning grammar. The paper contributes to the paucity of empirical investigations in this domain by presenting the findings of a study which sought to investigate the relationship between the use of grammar learning strategies (GLS) reported by 142 English Department students and target language attainment, operationalized as their performance in a practical grammar course and the end-of-the-year examination. Information about GLS use was obtained by means of a tool that was designed on the basis of a theoretical scheme proposed by Oxford, Rang Lee and Park (2007) in which GLS are divided into three categories depending on whether they represent implicit learning with focus on form, explicit inductive learning and explicit deductive learning. The analysis failed to find a strong positive relationship between the use of GLS and achievement, irrespective of the level of the BA program, or statistically significant differences in this respect between lower-level and higher-level participants. The highest, albeit very weak, correlation was identified between the use of GLS associated with explicit deductive learning and grammar course grades, which testifies to the traditional nature of instruction the subjects receive. The findings serve as a basis for putting forward a handful of recommendations for learning, teaching and testing grammar as well as directions for future studies into grammar learning strategies.
EN
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) has been serving the linguistic community in Europe and beyond for over twenty years now. The document, published by the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe in a draft version in 1998, and in the final English and French versions in 2001, quickly achieved the status of a standard European point of reference for foreign language learning, teaching, and proficiency assessment. Translated so far into over 40 languages (as of May 2021), the CEFR has attracted substantial interest and is now used worldwide in language policy development as well as curriculum preparation and design of teaching materials, and most often as a standard reference in foreign language proficiency testing and certification.In 2014, the Council of Europe commissioned a group of experts to review and supplement the original 2001 publication on the basis of experiences gained over more a dozen years of use. The paper briefly presents and comments on the results of their work, with the intention to indicate and highlight the aspects of the revised CEFR that reveal the wider educational potential of its approach, which in my opinion reach beyond the originally assumed scope related to foreign language learning, teaching, and proficiency assessment.
PL
Wspólny europejski system opisu kształcenia językowego – ESOKJ – służy społeczności językowej w Europie i poza nią już od ponad dwudziestu lat. Dokument opublikowany przez Wydział Polityki Językowej Rady Europy w wersji roboczej w 1998 r., a w wersji końcowej, angielskiej i francuskiej w 2001 r., szybko uzyskał status standardowego europejskiego punktu odniesienia w zakresie uczenia się, nauczania i oceniania znajomości języków obcych. Przetłumaczony do tej pory (maj 2021 r.) na ponad 40 języków ESOKJ spotkał się z dużym zainteresowaniem i jest obecnie używany na całym świecie przy kształtowaniu polityki językowej, tworzeniu programów nauczania i projektowaniu materiałów dydaktycznych, a najczęściej jako standardowe odniesienie w testowaniu i certyfikacji znajomości języków obcych. W roku 2014 Rada Europy zleciła grupie ekspertów dokonanie przeglądu i uzupełnienie oryginalnej publikacji z 2001 roku, w oparciu o doświadczenia zebrane w ciągu kilkunastu lat jej użytkowania. W niniejszym artykule pokrótce przedstawiam i komentuję wyniki ich pracy, z zamiarem wskazania i podkreślenia tych aspektów nowego „oblicza” ESOKJ, które ujawniają szerszy potencjał edukacyjny jego podejścia, sięgający moim zdaniem poza oryginalnie założony zakres uczenia się, nauczania i oceniania znajomości języków obcych.
EN
In the European Union, by 2025, it is planned to create a single European educational space. It means that knowledge of English is of vital importance for representatives of all professions and for teachers in particular. According to the research, teachers’ English language proficiency is on a rather low level. Digital technologies can help to improve the situation. Today, there are many opportunities on the Internet to learn a foreign language using Youtube, blogs, podcasts, where many content has already been generated. The Blended Learning Concept of Foreign Languages is being developed using the online platform “Lingva Skills” for language training specialists at universities. Thanks to digital technologies, knowledge and content become public, helping to align hierarchies previously based on knowledge and focus instead on skills and intelligence. For deep and comprehensive learning, it is worth using digital technologies that promote more intensive and better assimilation of foreign languages.
EN
The urgent problem today is English language learning across Ukraine because nowadays Ukraine is joining the European Union so it means the co-operation between member states. Among the many languages in the EU English is one of the official and working languages. During our research it has been stated that the pupils often are faced with different problems while learning English. But listening comprehension in English is more difficult and more important for learners to master. They can look up unknown vocabulary in dictionaries and use reference books when reading and writing a text in English, which is impossible when listening in English. In addition, the teaching of listening has attracted a greater level of interest in recent years than it did in the past. University entrance exams, school leaving and other examination now often include a listening component, acknowledging that listening skills are a core component of second language proficiency. There have been a number of attempts to define the listening skill in the literature. In this article we offer some definitions of listening of some foreign researchers. The goal of the article is to find out the reasons why listening is difficult and to give some ideas on how to tackle them. We have analyzed the problems of listening comprehension during English lessons at schools. The reasons why some pupils find listening in English language difficult vary just as much. There are some of them: they just don’t know the most important words; they are trying to understand every word; they don’t recognize the words that they know; they have problems with different accents; they have a mental block; they are distracted by background noise; they can’t tell the difference between the different voices; they can’t cope with not having images. It was proved that listening plays a crucial role in the communication process, in general and in language learning in particular. Nowadays we have a lot of opportunities to improve our language. Some important conclusions were made concerning the effectiveness of the improving of students’ listening comprehension. The main of them is the Internet. So, in this article we suggest some useful websites for English learners.
EN
In the medical, psychological, and pedagogical literature it is emphasized that the lack of satisfying the basic psychological needs of a child affects its somatic development, causes disturbances in the emotional sphere, and delays psychomotor development. In various scientific fields, the effects of social orphanhood are already a marginalized topic and only discussed in general terms regarding basic teachings – making these topics in speech therapy especially a novelty. This article deals with the level of competence and language skills of a six‑year‑old boy with social orphan compared to a boy of the same age who is raised with his nuclear family – thus not deprived of his basic physical and emotional needs. A comparative – quantitative analysis based on the Linguistic Development Test and – qualitative analysis was performed, taking into account all language subsystems. The initiated research is includes a new perspective in speech therapy – taking into account the environmental effects on language development and in particular the impact of social orphanhood on the child’s linguistic development.
PL
W literaturze medycznej, psychologicznej i pedagogicznej podkreśla się, że brak zaspokajania podstawowych potrzeb psychicznych dziecka ma wpływ na jego rozwój somatyczny, powoduje zakłócenia w sferze emocjonalnej, opóźnia rozwój psychoruchowy. Kwestie te są poruszane jednak dość ogólnikowo, a wpływ sieroctwa społecznego na językowy rozwój dziecka na gruncie różnych nauk jest traktowany marginalnie – w logopedii stanowiąc swoiste novum. Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy stanu kompetencji i sprawności językowej sześcioletniego chłopca z sieroctwem społecznym w porównaniu do chłopca w tym samym wieku, wychowanego w pełnej rodzinie, bez deprywacji podstawowych potrzeb fizycznych i emocjonalnych. Dokonano analizy porównawczej – ilościowej na podstawie Testu Rozwoju Językowego oraz jakościowej – z uwzględnieniem wszystkich podsystemów języka. Zainicjowane badania są badaniami wyznaczającymi nową perspektywę w logopedii – rozważanie o języku z uwzględnieniem aspektu środowiskowego, a szczególnie wpływ sieroctwa społecznego na rozwój językowy dziecka.
EN
The study involved 37 children with an autism spectrum disorder and 12 children with developmental aphasia, aged 2,6 to 8,1. They were assessed using the Sentence Comprehension Test, the Speech Therapy Screening Test and the Stanford‑Binet Intelligence Scale. It turned out that the autistic children and aphasic children have a borderline intellectual disability and are delayed in speech development. There were no statistically significant differences between them in terms of language understanding. Children with an autism spectrum disorder obtained significantly higher results than children with childhood aphasia in the tests assessing the dictionary, grammar and pronunciation. A high correlation was also found between the results in the Sentence Comprehension Test and the Speech Therapy Screening Test. However, the correlation between language understanding and non‑verbal intelligence turned out to be statistically insignificant.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badań, w których uczestniczyło 37 dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu oraz 12 dzieci z afazją rozwojową wieku od 2,6 do 8,1 lat. Zostały one ocenione za pomocą Testu Rozumienia Zdań, Przesiewowego Testu Logopedycznego oraz Skali Inteligencji Stanford‑Binet. Okazało się, że badane dzieci autystyczne oraz dzieci afatyczne mają inteligencję na pograniczu niepełnosprawności intelektualnej oraz są opóźnione w rozwoju mowy. Nie stwierdzono między nimi istotnych statystycznie różnic w zakresie rozumienia języka. Dzieci autystyczne uzyskały znacznie wyższe wyniki niż dzieci afatyczne w próbach oceniających słownik, gramatykę i wymowę. Stwierdzono także wysoką zależność między wynikami w Teście Rozumienia Zdań oraz Przesiewowym Teście Logopedycznym. Natomiast korelacja między rozumieniem języka a inteligencją niewerbalną okazała się nieistotna statystycznie.
PL
W artykule omówiono wybrane cechy intuicji językowej, rozumianej jako wiedza niejawna lub zdolność umysłowa, która pozwala użytkownikom języka na szybkie i zdecydowane wydawanie ocen, zwłaszcza gdy proszeni są o ocenę poprawności gramatycznej zdań. Artykuł prezentuje badanie pilotażowe przeprowadzone w grupie studentów uczących się języka francuskiego jako obcego na poziomie A2. Analiza wskazuje, że wszyscy badani, niezależnie od poziomu zaawansowania językowego, posługują się intuicją językową. Uzyskane wyniki pozwalają sformułować wnioski, że osoby uczące się na poziomie A2, dzięki swej intuicji, poprawnie oceniają gramatyczność zdań, które charakteryzują się regularną i prostą składnią oraz wysoką frekwencyjnością użycia. Uczący się rzadziej poprawnie oceniają poprawność tych zdań, w których zastosowano więcej niż jedną regułę gramatyczną.
EN
This paper discusses some of the qualities and weaknesses of language intuition, understood as tacit knowledge or mental ability, that allows language users to make judgements quickly and decisively, especially when they have to evaluate grammaticality/ ungrammaticality of sentences. In the paper, we present a pilot research conducted in a group of students of French as a foreign language at A2 level. The study shows that every language user, regardless of her/his level of mastery, uses linguistic intuition. The study also shows that users’ intuition at the A2 level help best when the learners deal with regular forms and forms with high frequency of use. However, when the learner has to apply more than one rule in the same sentence, following intuition might be less reliable.
EN
The article deals with the problem of the specificity of the Ukrainian language teaching of foreign students in groups with English teaching of medical universities. The aims of the article are to research theoretical and practical aspects of the Ukrainian-language teaching of foreign students. The methods of investigations include analysis, synthesis and generalization of scientific sources. The goals, tasks and stages of the study of Ukrainian as a foreign language are analyzed. The main thing in the study is formation of the ability of foreign students to make sentences and the development of speech skills which are based on lexical-grammar material. The concepts of “the language proficiency” and “the potential vocabulary” are defined. The potential vocabulary consists of active and passive vocabularies, international words and words with international roots, derivative words, multivalve and complex words. The importance of using different types of vocabularies: potential, working, thesaurus of medical terminology is substantiated. The using of the signal cards is necessary at the first stage of learning Ukrainian as a foreign language. Attention is accentuated to the formation of language skills through the use of situational-communicative exercises and dialogues. The oral speech should take no less than 30 % time of the lesson. The importance of step-by-step and systematic learning in teaching, orientation to language coincidence in Ukrainian and English languages has been proved. Systematic and thoroughly developed typical exercises, which are based on selected professional-oriented situations and the domination of oral exercises are proposed at direct communication “student – student”, “student – teacher”, “doctor ‒ patient”, “doctor – doctor” are essential for successful mastery of Ukrainian as a foreign language. The ultimate goal of teaching provides realization of the communicative needs of English-speaking students in different spheres of communication: everyday, social, educative and professional at the average level. The prospects for further research are the experimental testing of the methodology of teaching Ukrainian language as a foreign for students of medical universities in the groups with English language teaching in order to its further improvement.
EN
The article is in the form of a case study which aims to prove that a mass-media message cannot be intentionally effective due to an error contained in it. This issue is especially significant in view of the fact that in the welter of information and its accelerating flow, broadcasting organisations are paying less and less attention to linguisticcorrectness, believing that minor errors and flaws do not significantly affect the understanding of the content. Certainly not, but it is worth noting the fact that if such a text is taken as a certain part  or element of the complex interaction between a broadcaster (sender) and mass audience (receiver), a situation can arise in which an error makes the message ineffective in the intentional sphere, as it impedes the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s intention.
PL
Artykuł ma postać analizy przypadku, przedstawionego w celu udowodnienia, że przekaz medialny nie może być intencjonalnie skuteczny ze względu na zawarty w nim błąd.Jest to problem o tyle istotny, że w sytuacji natłoku i coraz większej szybkości przepływu informacji, coraz mniej uwagi nadawcy medialni poświęcają poprawności językowej, myśląc, że niewielkie błędy i usterki nie wpłyną znacząco na rozumienie treści. Z pewnością nie, ale warto wziąć pod uwagę, że jeżeli taki tekst ujmie się jako pewną część, element złożonej interakcji nadawcymedialnego z odbiorcą masowym, może dojść do sytuacji, że błąd spowoduje nieskuteczność przekazu w sferze intencjonalnej, ponieważ zakłóci odczytanie intencji nadawcy przez odbiorcę.
EN
The article deals with the issue of testing Polish as a foreign language of bilingual and multilingual young learners. Authors of the article present different educational solutions to testing and certifying foreign language skills in Poland, Ireland, Germany and in the United States of America. Different language tests are discussed, especially German school-leaving exams in Polish (Abiturprüfung Polnisch) as well as German telc exam in Polish or Irish Leaving Certificate exam in Polish, American Seal of Biliteracy and Languages Other Than English exams (LOTE). The article includes results of the survey conducted among the young learners who decided to take the Polish certificate exam at B1 level in Poland in 2017. The participants of the research confirmed the meaningful role of the certificate exams in Polish as a foreign language. At the end of the article the specific character of the Polish language exams abroad is also discussed in comparison with the Polish language test available for the young learners at the age of 14–17.  
PL
Artykuł porusza kwestię testowania i certyfikacji znajomości języka polskiego u uczniów dwu- i wielojęzycznych. Autorki przedstawiają polskie i zagraniczne rozwiązania systemowe, charakteryzując zróżnicowane podejścia do koncepcji poświadczania znajomości polszczyzny zarówno w Polsce, jak i w Niemczech, Irlandii oraz w Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki Północnej. Szczegółowo zostały omówione: niemiecka matura z języka polskiego (Abiturprüfung Polnisch) oraz tamtejszy certyfikat TELC, irlandzki Leaving Certificate Polish oraz amerykańska Seal of Biliteracy i egzamin LOTE Polish. Autorki tekstu zwracają przy tym uwagę na nowość, jaką w Polsce stanowią egzaminy certyfikatowe z JPJO w tzw. grupie dostosowanej do potrzeb dzieci i młodzieży i prezentują wyniki sondażu opinii na ten temat wśród zdających w wieku 14–17 lat, uwypuklając znaczenie i rolę tych egzaminów z perspektywy młodzieży. W podsumowaniu dyskutowana jest kwestia konkurencyjności polskich egzaminów certyfikatowych DiM wobec tego typu oferty zagranicznej.  
EN
Empirical research of international trade with the use of gravity model is often estimated with the FE estimator. Indeed, this method is appropriate in the face of heterogeneity, that is typical of pairs of countries, which influence the effect of the determinants of bilateral trade. However, the disadvantage of the FE approach is that it assumes all the slopes of the variables of interest are common across all trading pairs in the sample. The use of mixed effects model in this study allows the coefficients of national incomes’ product and the common internetization rate of trading countries to vary across the pairs. In order to capture unspecified heterogeneity by allowing the intercept and slopes to have a stochastic component in their variation, the 2-level and 3-level hierarchical linear models are estimated based on the data from the period 1999-2011. The results indicate that not only typical gravity model factors, but also globalization factors as internetization rate, researchers rate, share of high-technology products’ export, energy use, foreign languages proficiency and monetary union influence the bilateral trade between EU-members.
PL
Empiryczne modele grawitacji międzynarodowych przepływów handlowych estymowane są często metodą FE, której wadą jest iż, mimo zastosowania stałych efektów, zróżnicowanych dla wszystkich jednostek w badanej próbie, zakłada jednakowe oceny parametrów zmiennych użytych w modelu. W niniejszej pracy problem heterogeniczności rozwiązany jest za pomocą modeli mieszanych, pozwalających na zróżnicowane efekty pomiędzy parami nie tylko dla stałej, ale dodatkowo dla produktu dochodów narodowych oraz wspólnego poziomu internetyzacji. Estymowane dwu oraz trzy poziomowe modele dla danych z okresu 1999-2011 wykazują istotny wpływ tradycyjnych zmiennych modelu grawitacji oraz czynników związanych z postępem globalizacji.
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