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EN
The Grammar of the Kashubian Language – recognition and description of the structure of the contemporary Kashubian. Response to criticismThe article is a response to criticism of Hanna Makurat’s book titled The Grammar of the Kashubian Language; the book, published in 2016, is the first normative description of contemporary Kashubian. The Kashubian newspaper Skra has published a review which questioned the substantive content of the entire book. The author of the review showed incompatibilities between the book and Friedrich Lorentz’s Pomeranian Grammar, which was published in 1927–1937. However, the reviewer did not take into account the fact that Lorentz described the system of 76 Kashubian dialects, while Hanna Makurat described the system of contemporary Kashubian literary language, which evolved and developed standard forms. What is more, this review, written by an amateur, became the basis for the publication by the Kashubian Language Council of the statement – not supported by any arguments – that Hanna Makurat’s book was not a normative grammar. Due to lack of arguments, the Kashubian Language Council, after a month and a half, removed this statement from its website. Gramatika kaszëbsczégò jãzëka – rozpoznanie i opracowanie struktury współczesnego literackiego języka kaszubskiego. Odpowiedź na głosy krytykiArtykuł stanowi odpowiedź na krytykę, z jaką spotkała się książka Hanny Makurat Gramatika kaszëbsczégò jãzëka, wydany w 2016 roku pierwszy normatywny opis współczesnego języka kaszubskiego. Kaszubska gazeta „Skra” opublikowała recenzję, która podaje w wątpliwość istotną część zawartych w książce ustaleń. Autor recenzji wskazał niezgodności między książką Makurat a Gramatyką pomorską Friedricha Lorentza, którą opublikowano w latach 1927–1937. Recenzent nie wziął jednak pod uwagę, że Lorentz opisywał system 76 gwar kaszubskich, Makurat zaś opisała system współczesnego kaszubskiego języka literackiego, który dopracował się form standardowych. Omawiana recenzja, której autor jest amatorem, stała się na dodatek powodem opublikowania przez Radę Języka Kaszubskiego niepopartego żadnymi argumentami oświadczenia, że gramatyka Hanny Makurat nie ma charakteru normatywnego. Wobec braku argumentów po upływie półtora miesiąca Rada Języka Kaszubskiego usunęła oświadczenie ze swojej strony internetowej.
EN
Classical theories of language contact consider its results only as the interference of two languages leading to convergence phenomena. However, when two closely related literary languages remain in contact, divergence phenomena form new contrasts in the receiving language, showing great vitality, and prevent further convergence with the dominate language. We refer to this type of divergence, in which new phenomena arise in only one of the languages, as asymmetric. In this article, I consider asymmetric divergence at the word-formation level, using material from the Slovak and Czech literary languages, with Slovak acting as the receiving language. I consider the cases of the following divergent processes: nomina loci with the suffix -išt(e), deverbal adjectives with the suffix -l(ý), adverbs with the suffix -e, some categories of numerals and words with numerical value, deverbal nomina agentis with the suffix -teľ, and adjectives which acquire the suffix -iansk(y).
RU
Классическая теория языковых контактов рассматривает их результаты лишь как интерференцию двух языков, приводящую к явлениям конвергентного характера. Однако при продолжающихся тесных языковых контактах между двумя близкородственными литературными языками в принимающем языке, проявляющим большýю жизнеспособность, во избежание смены языка возникают дивергентные явления, которые препятствуют его еще большему сближению с языком-донором, образуя новые контрасты. Такой тип дивергенции, при которой новые явления возникают только в одном языке, а в другом сохраняется старое состояние, мы называем асимметричной. Асимметричная дивергенция в данной статье рассматривается на словообразовательном уровне на материале словацкого и чешского литературных языков, причем в этой паре в качестве принимающего языка выступает словацкий. В статье показаны дивергентные процессы, которые охватили nomina loci с суффиксом -išt(e), девербативные адъективалии с суффиксом -l(ý), наречия с суффиксом -е, некоторые разряды числительных и слова с числовым значением, девербативные nomina agentis с суффиксом -teľ, прилагательные, приобретающие суффикс -iansk(y), и т. д.
EN
The article analyzes Nechui-Levytskyi’s writings vocabulary in the D ictionary o f the Ukrainian language under Grinchenko’s editorship. The Dictionary’ o f the Ukrainian language focuses on colloquial speech which shows and highlights everyday people activities. Also we can find the colloquial speech in Nechui-Levytskyi’s literatuře works.
EN
The main aim of this paper is to discuss the ideas of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o on language policy in postcolonial Africa in connection with the key ideas of postcolonial theory. To that end some cultural, social, and political thoughts of Ngũgĩ will be presented, particularly those regarding language as a means to legitimize and execute the power, its role in the struggle against neocolonial dependency, social and political commitment of African writers and their language choices.
EN
The article is devoted to the problem of the formation of the speech culture of primary school pupils who are carriers of dialectal speech. The modern linguodidactic representatives' and teachers' views of the problem raised are analyzed in the article. It was substantiated the practical value of the formation of the speech culture of primary school pupils, using at the same time, local dialects that students have mastered since childhood. The work also described the introduction of dialectal material into the educational process by a primary school teacher one of the mountain schools of the Nearcarpathian region. The study results of the formation of schoolchildren's speech culture are submitted in the context of dialect speech of the Ivano-Frankivsk region (Ukraine).
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Stylizacja – pomysł na reaktywację śląszczyzny

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EN
In the article, the status of the Silesian ethnolanguage is shortly discussed. The opinions of two groups writing about this topic are presented: those writing from the perspective of the detailed linguistics (historical) and those writing from the perspective of the general linguistics. The author mentions also about the social, legal, and political background that creates the status of ethnolanguages  in  the  contemporary  political-legal  situation  of  Europe.  Basing  on  these,  the author analyzes publications of the recent 25 years, which belong to popular scientific writings and belles-lettres. She exposes their role in raising of the prestige of the Silesian ethnolanguage.
EN
This article aims to present and describe the situation of the literary language of the Molise Slavs. In the last decades, various scholars have expressed their views on this issue with some of them claiming that Molise Slavic is a literary language, whilst by the other ones this vernacular was denied such right. Although Alexandr D. Dulichenko – who coined the term „Slavic literarymicrolanguage” – dated its literary traditions back to the 19th century, some scholars perceive the 18th or 20th centuries as the beginning of the literature written in Molise Slavic (MSl). Consequently, this led to ambiguity that this article is trying to clarify. Until recently, this vernacular was prevalently used for poetry and short prose, but with recent publications of Nicola Gliosca’s novels, Molise Slavic is now on its way to develop as a full-fledged literary language. According to typology presented by Antoni Furdal, MSl can now – with presence of translations – be classified as a „literary language with limited sphere of use”.
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Dicționar grotesc

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EN
A little writing not enough researched and reaching a few pages belonging to Vasile Alecsandri proves the keen interest of a comedies and vaudeville author for language issues, especially for the building of a beautiful and fluent literary language. From our point of view, of a today's researcher, it is the only work published towards the end of the 19th century (approx. 1876), which includes in the title the term of grotesque with certain connotations, unusual for the Romanian cultural space. Through an analysis sourcing in the New Criticism, we will show the links, avant la lettre, with the aesthetics of the grotesque in the Romanian space and the intuitions of a writer, considered “easy”, although a classic of Romanian literature.
PL
The aim of the present paper is to determine several fissures and inconsistencies leading to unsolvable ambiguities of meaning in Manuel de Pedrolo’s novel Typescript of the second origin by means of a critical analysing of its linguistic and ideological issues, specially its religious groundwork – which is both stylistic and related to ideological content. However, some elements weaken the narrative’s disrupting character, making almost inevitably the failure of this revolution, as it is evidenced in the epilogue. In short, Predolo’s novel may be interpreted as a strong claim against History.
EN
Pere Calders is one of the most recognised contemporary Catalan authors, especially on account of his uses of humorous and fantastic motives. In the present article two of his short stories are analysed as samples of involvement between fantasticity, on the one hand, and literality, metafiction and discourse construction on the other. It is showed how the narrative voice manipulates language semantically, syntactically and pragmatically in order to create ambiguity and, therefore, enlarge the limits of reality. If narrator’s parody strategy is seen as the representation of the unreal in front of everyday life, and reality as what certainly tortures and strongly worries people in the name of reason, we can conclude that in Calders’ short stories unreality is subtly invaded by the real, producing at the same time aparody of aparody in itself.
EN
The article is devoted to the 13th century Gospel Book, which is kept in the Russian State Archive of Old Records and registered under reference F. 381, № 7. The aim of the paper is to define the similarity of the manuscript to other old texts according to its content and order of readings. Moreover, the author attempts to find the Gospel Book’s place in the classification of full lectionaries. In the course of the analysis it is stated that the text has various typological features. Despite the fact that in some elements it resembles the South Slavonic Miroslav Gospel, it belongs to the most common type of full lectionaries in Ruthenia among which the leading role is played by Mstislav Gospel. Furthermore, the manuscript reflects the peculiar features of Milata Gospel, which makes it a part of the class of manuscripts represented by this old text of Novgorod.
Stylistyka
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2016
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vol. 25
133-143
EN
The term literary language has many meanings nowadays. Beginning from the 70’s and the 80’s it’s been substituted with terms such as general language, general Polish language, nationwide language in consequence of transitions that underwent during the II World War and in the period directly it ensuing. The literary language term was fixed in linguistic studies codified language. In this meaning, in a diachronic approach, it has functional substantiation.
RU
The article focuses on the concept of historical memory on the basis of the Ukrainian linguistics ofthe 1920s and 1930s. The aspects of the scientific work of linguists of the Kharkiv Philological School (O. Vetukhov, M. Yogansen, O. Kurylo, M. Nakonechnyi, K. Nymchynov, V. Simovych, O. Synyavskyi, S. Smerechynskyi, M. Sulyma, B. Tkachenko, О. Finkel), who were in creative interaction with the Slavic and European scientific circles, are characterised; the influence of the ideas of the Prague linguistic circle, in particular its structural-semantic paradigm, on the directions of scientific research of Ukrainian linguists during the mentioned period is noted. Attention is focused on the main achievements of Ukrainian linguistics in the field of stylistics. The work of O. Kurylo Attention on the modern Ukrainian literary language (1920) is analysed in view of the terminology apparatus of stylistics, including theoretical and methodological principles of Ukrainian and Slavic linguistics in general. The stylistic advisers of M. Gladkyi, which highlight the cultural aspects of journalism and literature, and peculiarities of word-formation in the language of the press and fiction, are discussed. The work Ukrainian phrase. Short Sketches (1928) by M. Sulyma, devoted to issues of stylistic morphology and stylistic syntax is investigated as well as the terminology of stylistics used in the work of S. Smerechynskyi Essays on the Ukrainian syntax (in connection with phraseology and stylistics) (1932); M. Yogansen’s scientific discoveries Elementary laws of versification (1922) and How the narrative is constructed. Analysis of Prose Samples (1927) as well as O. Finkel’s: A Brief Introduction to Theoretical Stylistics (1927), L. Bulakhovsky’s The Basics of Linguistics (1931–1932) are scrutinised. The course of B. Tkachenko’s Essay of Ukrainian Stylistics (Kharkiv, 1929–1930?), created under the influence of French stylistics by S. Bally is noted, in which for the first time in Ukrainian linguistics, the necessity of studying stylistics as a separate educational discipline was proved, its purpose and task were articulated, and conceptual apparatus outlined; the essence and nature of the interrelations of the literary language with individual and folk-colloquial language are investigated.
PL
Literacki język słoweński jest oficjalnym językiem obowiązującym w Słowenii oraz na terenach zamieszkanych przez mniejszość słoweńską. Od początku kształtowania się normy języka słoweńskiego cechują go mniejsze lub większe wpływy z języka niemieckiego. Język prekmurski rozwijał się równolegle z językiem słoweńskim od połowy XVIII wieku na terenie Prekmurja. Jest to najbardziej na wschód wysunięty obszar Republiki Słowenii, oddzielony od reszty terytorium słoweńskiego rzeką Murą i graniczący z trzema spośród czterech sąsiadów: Austrią, Chorwacją i Węgrami. Historia Prekmurców, w odróżnieniu od historii pozostałych Słoweńców, ponad tysiąc lat była związana z Węgrami. O literackim języku prekmurskim mówi się do 1919 roku, kiedy Prekmurje zostało włączone do ziem słoweńskich. Tradycja używania literackiego języka prekmurskiego pozostała żywa na terenie Porabja – obszaru zamieszkiwanego przez Słoweńców, ale znajdującego się obecnie na terenie Węgier. Celem artykułu jest krótkie przedstawienie historii języka prekmurskiego, powstałego na bazie dialektów prekmurskich, i ukazanie jego koegzystencji z literackim językiem słoweńskim, zwanym również w przeszłości centralnosłoweńskim. Aby ogląd ten był możliwy, przedstawiono szersze tło historyczne i odwołano się do procesu kształtowania się języka literackiego na ziemiach słoweńskich.
EN
Literary Slovenian is the official language in Slovenia and in areas inhabited by Slovenian minorities. From the beginning of the shaping of the norm of the Slovenian language, it has been characterized by lesser or greater influences of German language. The Prekmurian language developed in parallel with the Slovenian language from the mid-18th century in Prekmurje, which is the most eastern area of the Republic of Slovenia, separated from the rest of the Slovenian territory by the Mura river and bordering three out of four neighbours: Austria, Croatia and Hungary. The history of the Prekmurs, unlike the history of the other Slovenians, was associated with Hungary for over a thousand years. The Prekmurian language was noted until 1919, when Prekmurje was incorporated into Slovenian lands. The tradition of using the literary Prekmurian language remained alive in Porabje, an area inhabited by Slovenians, but now located in Hungary. The aim of this paper is to briefly present the history of the Prekmurian language, based on Prekmurje dialects and to show its coexistence with the literary Slovenian language, also known as the central Slovenian language in the past. For this view to be sustained, it is necessary to outline the historical background and refer to the process of the shaping of the literary language in Slovenian lands.
EN
The year 2014 saw the publication of two books written in Kashubian: Jerzy Treder’s Spòdlowô wiedza o kaszëbiznie ("Basic knowledge about Kashubian") and Hanna Makurat’s Interferencjowé przejinaczi w gôdce bilingwalny spòlëzny Kaszub ("Processes of interference in the bilingual speech of the Kashubian community"). Both books are written in the Kashubian literary language, which is now taught at schools in the Kashubia, yet the language is still in an emerging state. This paper provides an analysis of the linguistic material from these two books. It investigates the literary and regional variants of the Kashubian language as well as interactions between Kashubian and Polish. The analysis is used to present changes that have occurred in the Kashubia in the last fifty years and to reflect on the linguistic future of the area.
PL
Rok 2014 przyniósł nam dwie książki naukowe napisane po kaszubsku: Jerzego Tredera, Spòdlowô wiedza o kaszëbiznie („Podstawowa wiedza o kaszubszczyźnie”) i Hanny Makurat Interferencjowé przejinaczi w gôdce bilingwalny spòlëzny Kaszub („Procesy interferencyjne w mowie bilingwalnej społeczności Kaszub”). Obie książki napisane są kaszubskim językiem literackim, nauczanym obecnie w szkołach na Kaszubach, wciąż jednak jeszcze będącym in statu nascendi. Zanalizowany w tych książkach materiał językowy, tyczący kaszubszczyzny regionalnej i literackiej oraz wzajemnych oddziaływań kaszubsko-polskich, posłużył autorce artykułu do ukazania zmian, które nastąpiły na Kaszubach w ostatnim pięćdziesięcioleciu oraz skłonił ją do refleksji na temat językowej przyszłości tego obszaru.
PL
W niniejszej pracy autor przedstawia złożone zjawisko, jakim jest wybór języka katalońskiego jako „adoptowanego” języka literackiego. Od wielu już lat podobnego wyboru dokonują nierodzimi pisarze mieszkający w wielokulturowym społeczeństwie katalońskim. Mówi się tu o takich pisarzach, którzy w okresie wczesnego dzieciństwa nie posługiwali się językiem katalońskim, ani też się go nie nauczyli w tym okresie życia. W pierwszej części artykułu autor przedstawił kontekst omawianego zagadnienia, to znaczy historię publikowania dzieł literackich przez pisarzy, którzy, choć nie pochodzili z Krain katalońskich, zdecydowali się stosować język kataloński (pomimo prób zredukowania go do stanu mniejszościowego, należy on dziś do grupy europejskich języków średniej wielkości). W pracy omawia się twórczość różnych pisarzy i zauważane są dzielące ich różnice. Pius Alibek, postać pochodzenia asyryjskiego, Monika Zgustova, urodzona w Czechach, oraz Najat El Hachmi, przybyła z regionu berberyjskiego, są przedstawicielami języków i kultur o średniej wielkości lub historycznie doprowadzonych do stanu mniejszościowego. Natomiast cechą charakterystyczną dwóch innych twórców osiadłych w Katalonii, Patricii Gabancho, urodzonej w Argentynie, oraz Matthew Tree, pochodzenia brytyjskiego, jest to, że z początku oboje przynależeli kulturowo do potężnych systemów językowych. Uznając inność za kategorię analityczną, autor omawia najważniejsze ideologiczne aspekty dotyczące interesującego go zjawiska literackiego, umiejscawiając je w kontekście wyznaczonym przez czynniki społeczne, polityczne i kulturowe.
EN
This work presents the complex and tangled phenomenon of choosing Catalan as a literary “adoptive” language that has been taking place among several non-native writers living in the multicultural society developed in Catalonia; that is to say, these writers did not communicate in Catalan or learn this language at their tender age. First of all, the author offers a contextualization and argumentation of this specific subject – the publication of literary works in a minorized, medium -sized European language by non-native speakers – through history and today’s reality in the Catalan countries. Anyway, there is not an homogenous explanation for all these cases, because we can find notable differences among them: whereas Assyrian-born Pius Alibek, Czech-born Monika Zgustova or Berber-born Najat El Hachmi represent other medium-sized or historically minorized languages and cultures, two immigrant writers stand out in this picture since they originally belong to two powerful languages systems, particularly Argentinian-born Patricia Gabancho and British-born Matthew Tree. Considering otherness as an analytical category, the evaluation and dissection of the most important ideological aspects concerning the mentioned literary phenomenon will provide to a precise elucidation of it in the light of social, political and cultural factors.
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Prof. dr hab. Jerzy Treder (1942–2015)

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EN
The article deals with the evolution of the language of Brazilian regionalism in the second half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century. Beginning with O gaúcho and O sertanejo, “sertanist” novels by José de Alencar, it briefly comments on the “bilingualism” of the regionalist short-stories of the turn of the century and their switching between the story-tellersʼ flowery language and the uncouth language of the rustic characters. Having examined the narrative shift to the first person narrative, capable of relating the personal experience of the villagers, it brings the example of short-stories penned by Simões Lopes Neto as a case of a successful transposition of the dialect of Rio Grande do Sul into a full literary language. This language conveys not only the peculiarity of the “gaúcho” narrator Blau Nunes but also a whole world-view of a character wedded to the archaic understanding of life
EN
The present arcticle, which was written for the International Panopticum Conference in Brussels in 2009, discusses the way Marian Pankowski’s literary language, or his motherland of word, functions in the sphere between homeland and European space. The title Smagła swoboda, which expresses the author-emigrant’s strive to keep his Sanok imagination in touch with European culture and languages, has become the metaphor for the considerations. The aim of the innovative Sanok-European fusion in Pankowski’s dicourse is creating an independent writing code as well as identity. The rich reservoir of topics used by the author, e.g., ‘auschwitz’ trauma, private patriotism as well as persisting with Polishness and spiritual bond with the mother, was submerged in multifarious and sensual European reality described with the aura of irony and grotesque.
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