W teoriach poznawczo-rozwojowych przyjmuje się założenie o paralelizmie strukturalnym, czyli jedności rozwoju różnych dziedzin myślenia. Lawrence Kohlberg, tworząc swoją teorię rozwoju rozumowania moralnego, postawił hipotezę, zgodnie z którą rozwój poznawczy jest warunkiem koniecznym, ale niewystarczającym rozwoju moralnego. Celem prowadzonych rozważań jest wskazanie na związek między rozwojem poznawczym i rozumowaniem moralnym oraz przedstawienie wyników badań empirycznych, których intencją była weryfikacja hipotezy Kohlberga.
EN
Within the cognitive-developmental approach there is an assumption of structural parallel- ism that is an assumption of the developmental integrity of different areas of thinking. While creating his own theory of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a hypothesis that cognitive development is a necessary — but not a sufficient — condition of moral devel- opment. The aim of this paper is to focus on the relationship between cognitive development and moral reasoning and to present the results of empirical research that intended to verify Kohlberg’s hypothesis.
S. Kierkegaard believed that there were three different forms of life and called them the aesthetic stage, the ethical stage, and the religious stage. L. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development divides individuals on the basis of their moral development into six stages, two at the pre-conventional level, two at the conventional level and two at the post-conventional level. This theory shows progress from strong addiction and submission to outside influences and never ending inner struggle to overcome crisises in order to achieve moral autonomy. In the light of cross-cultural comparison there is only partial support for a relationship between level of moral judgment (based on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development) and ethical decision-making. Data collected from Malaysian and New Zeland business students provided evidence that the relationship between subject’s level of moral judgment and their ethical intentions occurred in only three of six instances. The absence of a consistent empirical relationship between level of moral judgment, ethical intentions and culture suggests that the number of other factors may influence an individual’s ethical behavior.
The article analyses contemporary tendencies in managing organizations from the point of view their relations to financial crisis. It shows the parallel between description of individual levels and stages of moral development to those of organizations and presents a non stage based explanation of individual moral decisions related to management. The author refers to the example of bank, its employees and management, in purpose to prove that the tendencies which were introduced into everyday practice last years were leading to low moral standards of banks management. The L. Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of moral development and A. B. Carroll’s theory of differentiating role of the intentions were used to highlight the organizational management practices.
In the presented work, an attempt is made to specify the theory-cognitive significance of J. Reykowski’s concept of multidimensional moral development for intercultural studies. This proposal seems to be particularly useful in pedagogical analyses dealing with moral reasoning of children. The presented research results and their interpretation confirm the presence of intercultural differentiation in the development of evaluation standards of learners in late childhood. Therefore, this concept may have broader application in intercultural studies in education.
Psychologist are the representatives of a profession in which a wellbeing of a person is the paramount. Helping activity requires of psychologists to follow not only professional ethics but also moral norms. Not rarely do psychologists face the necessity to consider moral dilemmas connected with the practice of delivering psychological services. In such cases, a psychologist should be able to use not only professional knowledge, but also a moral competency allowing him or her to put in practice the assumptions of autonomous morality which is in agreement with his or her personal and professional identity. It is hard to find formal programs of stimulation of moral competence dedicated directly for psychologists. However, there is a possibility of using Konstanz Method of Dilemma-Discussion (KMDD®) in order to achieve this goal. Konstanz Method of Dilemma-Discussion developed by professor Georg Lind from the University of Konstanz – a student and a critic of L. Kohlberg – is used in many countries all over the world in order to increase the level of moral development by developing moral competency mainly in the area of education. An increasing interest of researchers in the method also results in searching for new possibilities of applications of the method. An example of such application would be an area of psychologists’ work. The article aims to promote the KMDD® method in the course of ethical and professional education and self-development of psychologists.
Pre-school play is an important moment in a child’s development. Caretakers play an important role during play. This article presents a structure of educational competence called “constructive empathizing” or “invitingaccompanying competence”. A caretaker’s special task during child’s play is conversion between the third-person knowledge and a subjective, autotelic interaction. The caretaker’s constructive empathizing during a child’s play determines the child’s social and moral development, it helps the child to turn play into work, as a sign of higher spontaneous understanding of cultural norms standing behind cultural correctness actions. Finally, it is evidence of dynamic interaction between abstract-concrete thinking, with the child learning from the caretaker.
Most all popular moral reasoning or moral judgment tests are based on presenting subjects with two or more hypothetical moral dilemmas and asking them to make judgments on the moral quality of arguments supporting and questioning a protagonist’s decision (e.g., the Moral Competence Test by G. Lind). Although these tests have been insightful by tapping some aspect of individuals’ moral-cognitive schemas, moral maturity, or moral development, they also have limitations. Hypothetical moral dilemmas may be too abstract and impersonal, thus failing to create enough emotional salience. Learning more about real-life personally recalled moral dilemmas may reveal more about the individual’s moral mind and experiences. Objective. The current study was conducted to learn more about the personally experienced moral dilemmas, and how they relate to subjects’ level of moral competence and gender. Method. Subjects were asked to recall the most challenging personal moral dilemma; subjects completed the MCT test to measure moral competence. Results. Among some of the findings was that for both, men and women, higher moral competence scores were positively correlated with recalling personal moral dilemmas where the choice had to be made between some altruistic (care for others) and selfish actions. For men, it was the risk of compromising one’s status, whereas for women it was the risk of personal safety.
This text presents the partial results of a research project entitled An Analysis of the Teleological Aspects of Substitute Care Facilities and their Impact on the Value System of Children with a Severe Socialisation Deviation. The aim of the research was to assess the state of children’s personality cultivation in the area of moral development when placed in substitute care (facilities for individuals with a diagnosis of behaviour disorder). The focus of the project were children who have problems complying with important social rules at some point during their development. The level of their problems escalated up to the point of removal from the family. In this case the Czech school system offers the possibility of using alternative educational strategies implemented at special educational institutions. In the context of our research the question also remained to what extent these institutions were prepared to effectively fulfil their social obligation. An important motive for the design of this research was the current situation within society, where the system of educational facilities used to perform mandated institutional care and protective custody in the Czech Republic was subjected to different often controversial interventions in the recent years (in the opinion of experts working in this segment of educational activities). The system has undergone several rather awkward attempts to improve the work with children diagnosed with behaviour disorder. The following text is an interpretation of significant partial findings based on collected data.
The empirical research reported in this article is based on the Moral Foundations Theory proposed by J. Haidt. Objectives. The author examines the impact of moral foundations arguments on early adolescents’ moral judgments regarding violating moral rules and explores gender-related differences between moral foundations preferences. Method. The effect of moral foundations arguments was measured by a newly developed meta-ethical position test (MEPT). The MEPT consists of a pretest questionnaire, treatment by moral foundations arguments, and a posttest questionnaire. The sample contained 178 early adolescents from the Czech Republic (84 females and 94 males). The influence of the moral foundations arguments was analyzed by comparing the pretest with the posttest. Results. 91% of teenagers changed their moral judgment due to confrontations with the moral foundations arguments. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test found that the moral foundations arguments were significantly relevant, since the P-value was lower than 0.001. The Mann-Whitney U test revealed the importance of the gender aspect: P-value care equals 0.01 and liberty 0.01. Girls have a preference for care foundation (21% more than boys), while boys tended to liberty (27 % more than girls). It seems that moral foundations arguments strongly change early adolescents’ moral judgments and can be practically applied as a valuable platform for early adolescents’ moral development.
The article presents a review of theoretical concepts on empathic sensitivity. The text demonstrates correlations between empathy and moral development and presents empathy in children and its conditions. The article is also aimed at pointing to the significance of empathy in human relations, and it introduces several factors which influence bringing up children to have empathy. Moreover, it presents the methods of working with children aimed at developing their empathic sensitivity. These include, among others, drama, working with literary texts and art techniques.
Poszukując przyczyn dopuszczania się przez ludzi czynów przestępczych, naruszających społeczny porządek, godzących w dobro społeczeństwa i krzywdzących poszczególnych jej członków, badacze coraz częściej zwracają uwagę na znaczenie poziomu rozwoju moralnego i braków w tym zakresie dla społecznego funkcjonowania jednostki. Z drugiej strony - badacze rozwoju moralnego, wskazując na konsekwencje moralnej niedojrzałości, oznaczającej pozostawanie na wczesnych poziomach rozwoju i brak zdolności do przyjęcia innej - poza własną, egocentryczną - perspektywy, wymieniają wśród nich większą skłonność do łamania prawa, obowiązujących zasad moralnych i społecznych, skutkujących zachowaniami agresywnymi i czynami przestępczymi. Celem prezentowanych analiz jest wskazanie na wzajemne związki między rozwojem rozumowania moralnego a tendencją do zachowań przestępczych poprzez odwołanie się do teorii pozwalających związek ten wyjaśnić, jak również badań empirycznych potwierdzających istnienie takiego związku.
EN
In the search for the reasons why some people commit criminal acts, disturb social order, cause harm to others and pose a menace to public well-being, the centrepiece of much of psychological research has increasingly become moral development and its significance for social behaviour. Moral immaturity, defined as moral development halted at its early stages with a concomitant lack of perspective taking (beyond one's own egocentrism), has been identified in the moral development research as one of the culprits of aggressive and criminal behaviour by facilitating disregard for law, moral principles and social codes of conduct. In this paper, I will attempt to highlight the possible associations between moral development and criminal behaviour. I will refer to relevant theories in order to provide an explanation of this relationship and include results of empirical research that confirm it.
Both the function of one’s conscience, as Thomas Aquinas understands it, and the work of casuistry in general involve deliberating about which universal moral principles are applicable in particular cases. Thus, understanding how conscience can function better also indicates how casuistry might be done better – both on Thomistic terms, at least. I claim that, given Aquinas’ descriptions of certain parts of prudence (synesis and gnome) and the role of moral virtue in practical knowledge, understanding particular cases more as narratives, or parts of narratives, likely will result, all else being equal, in more accurate moral judgments of particular cases. This is especially important in two kinds of cases: first, cases in which Aquinas recognizes universal moral principles do not specify the means by which they are to be followed; second, cases in which the type-identity of an action – and thus the norms applicable to it – can be mistaken.
Postęp moralny. Współczesna perspektywa przewodniej idei Oświecena. Większość myślicieli epoki Oświecenia wierzyła, że ład panujący w świecie, jako oparty w ostatecznej instancji na prawie bożym, jest dobry, a więc każdy przyrost wiedzy będzie miał dobre konsekwencje. Zakładano, że rozwój naukowy pociąga za sobą rozwój moralny. Chociaż faktycznie w cywilizacji zachodniej nastąpił pewien postęp moralny, to jednak jest on bardzo niewspółmierny z postępem nauki. Oświeceniowe pojęcie ciągłego postępu nauki i moralności okazało się w dużej mierze błędne. Złożyło się na to kilka powodów: (1) Moralność publiczna i nauka rozwijają się niezależnie i mogą się zarówno wzajemnie wzbogacać, jak też hamować. (2) W porządku świata nie ma żadnych obiektywnych wartości, które można by odczytać, a potem kierować się nimi. Wartości, które faktycznie realizujemy, są względne. Zostały wygenerowane i ukształtowane przez ewolucję, a zatem powinniśmy raczej je nadzorować, niż ich przestrzegać. (3) Nasza moralność, która jest tworem ewolucji, jest wadliwa i niewystarczająca. Z trudem podlega postępowi; łatwo zaś — doktrynalnej manipulacji. (4) Większość ludzi wykazuje metaetyczną niekompetencję, czyli niezdolność do zajęcia uzasadnionego krytycznego stanowiska wobec zastanych norm, co sprawia, że postęp moralny zależy od tych, którzy osiągnęli metaetyczną kompetencję, wychodząc poza konwencjonalne fazy rozwoju moralnego.
EN
Most Enlightenment thinkers believed that the World’s order (as ultimately based on divine laws) is good and thus every gain of knowledge will have good consequences. Scientific process was assumed to entail moral progress. In fact some moral progress did occur in the Western civilization and science contributed to it, but it is widely incommensurate with the progress of science. The Enlightenment’s concept of a concerted scientific and moral progress proved largely wrong for several reasons. (1) Public morality and science evolve largely independently and may either enhance or inhibit each other. (2) There are no objective values to be read in the World’s order and simply followed. Instead, our real, subjective values and the moral systems they fuel have all been generated and shaped by evolution rather than designed to be universally good, a nd thus ought to be managed rather than simply followed. (3) Our evolved morality is flawed, deficient, prone to doctrinal manipulation and refractory to progress. (4) The majority of people show metaethical incompetence in failing to take a reasoned critical stand toward the principles and assumptions of received morals. This makes moral progress largely dependent on those who reach metaethical competence by transcending the conventional stages of moral development.
The article aimsat deepening teachers’ responsibility and raising their awareness while organizing and managing the educational process, covering the reflective skills whose quality is reflected in teachers’ moral approaches. Morality performs a significant role when it comes to conducting the educational process. That is why discussion of issues of teachers’ knowledge seems to be important. Specifying its components means that we can see teachers‘ influence on pupils’ moral development, particularly when teachers are regarded as moral models by young students. Being conscious of this fact obliges teachers to perform self-moral developmental work which is then transferred into the pedagogic and didactic fields. The components of teachers’ knowledge understood in a perspective of creative, effective, reflective and practical implementation become meaningful.
The previous moral psychological research on educational institutions highlighted the influence on the development of moral orientation and competence. With the help of the present quantitative study, the influence of early childhood education on moral abilities has been explored. Since the moral education of children is often associated with religious norms and values, and religions are debated in relation to their general meaning and functionality, the religious moral education has been investigated. Therefore, students of various disciplines from Berlin were asked about their religious education in their early childhood and were examined on their current moral orientation and competence. The Moral-Competence-Test by Lind and a self-constructed and piloted questionnaire for the examination of religious education and religiosity have been used for the measurement. The results of the online study have shown that the moral skills of dogmatically educated students are significantly reduced, but not related to the differences in educational experience or the current preservation of religiousness.
Wartości w życiu każdego człowieka stanowią nieodłączny element jego egzystencji. Ukierunkowują jego działanie. Wpływają na podejmowane decyzje. Pomagają interpretować własne zachowania i działania innych osób. Wiek przedszkolny jest okresem, w którym rozpoczyna się kształtowanie moralności, istnieją rzeczy mniej lub bardziej istotne dla dziecka. Warte odkrycia jest zatem to, co dla dzieci w okresie przedszkolnym jest ważne. W celu poznania wartości istotnych dla dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym przeprowadzono badania, którymi objęto 70 dzieci sześcioletnich uczęszczających do wybranych białostockich przedszkoli i oddziałów przedszkolnych. Zastosowaną w badaniach metodą była analiza wytworów pracy, a narzędziem – analiza rysunku. Badanie odbyło się w trakcie pobytu dzieci w placówce. Uzyskane dane pozwoliły odpowiedzieć na postawiony problem badawczy: Jakie wartości badane dzieci sześcioletnie uznają za ważne w swoim życiu? Najistotniejszą wartością dla badanych dzieci jest rodzina; następnie zabawa, zabawki oraz Bóg jako stworzyciel świata. Uzyskane dane empiryczne mogą być cennym źródłem informacji, pozwalającym dostosować proces kształcenia i wychowania w taki sposób, aby odpowiadał on sferze najbliższego rozwoju dziecka.
EN
Values in everyone’s life are an integral part of their existence. They guide their actions. They influence the decisions made. They help interpret their own behaviors and actions of others. Preschool age is a period when moral development begins, there are things that are more or less important to the child. It is therefore worth discovering what is important to preschool children. In order to learn about the values that are important to preschool children, a study was conducted involving 70 six-year-old children attending selected Bialystok kindergartens and preschool departments. The method used in the study was the analysis of work products and the tool was drawing analysis. The study took place during the children’s stay at the facility. The data obtained allowed to answer the research problem: What values do six-year-old children consider important in their lives? The most important value for the children surveyed is family. Then play, toys and God as the creator of the world. The empirical data obtained can be a valuable source of information, allowing to adjust the education and upbringing process in such a way as to respond to the child’s nearest area of development.
The moral education of personality during preschool childhood is essential for moral growth in the next age periods. Searching for new approaches to the implementation of the tasks of moral education of the individual is topical in modern transformational changes in education. The aim of this article is to reveal theoretically the psychological foundations of the concept of the innovation of moral education of preschool children. The main determinant of it is the formation of moral self-identity. On the basis of theoretical analysis it was proven that the moral education of a preschooler should be considered as an integral unity and interaction of such a multicomponent structure: cognitive, emotionally-valuable and behavioral elements. Research results of Ukrainian and foreign psychologists convincingly prove that the dynamics of moral education in preschool age are mediated by the moral feelings of the child. It is also determined by the contradiction between the desire to preserve the child’s positive image of “Self” and representations of the real image of “Self” (which in preschool age synergistically conditioned by a moral image of “Self”). The result of the implementation of this psychological model must be the growth of a child’s moral education – primarily, it will show itself in the enrichment of internal potential and affirmation of moral image of “Self”. The specifics of the represented new look at the psychological basis of preschoolers’ upbringing in conditions of modern education is the creation of an integrative educational model, the core of which is the development of moral self- consciousness.
PL
Wychowanie moralne osoby w okresie przedszkolnym ma kluczowe znaczenie dla jej moralnego rozwoju w dalszych okresach. We współczesnych warunkach transformacyjnych zmian w systemie oświaty aktualnym jest poszukiwanie nowych sposobów realizacji celów moralnego wychowania jednostki. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest określenie osobliwości psychologicznych zasad innowacyjnej koncepcji wychowania moralnego przedszkolaków, której głównym wyznacznikiem jest budowa własnej tożsamości moralnej. Na podstawie wykonanej analizy teoretycznej udowodniono, że wychowanie moralne osobowości przedszkolaka należy postrzegać jako integralny system oraz wzajemne powiązania następującej wieloskładnikowej struktury: kognitywnej, emocjonalno-wartościowej i zachowania. Materiały badań ukraińskich i zagranicznych psychologów w sposób oczywisty udowodniły, że dynamika wychowania moralnego w wieku przedszkolnym wyznacza się moralnymi uczuciami dziecka i charakteryzuje się sprzecznościami pomiędzy dążeniem dziecka do zachowania pozytywnego wizerunku „Ja” oraz realistycznym wizerunkiem „Ja”, co w wieku przedszkolnym synergistycznie generuje postrzeganie moralnego „Ja”. Wynikiem wdrożenia zaproponowanego psychologicznego modelu wychowania moralnego przedszkolaka powinien być wzrost jego edukacji moralnej, widocznej, przede wszystkim, we wzbogaceniu moralnego potencjału oraz kreowaniu wizerunku moralnego „Ja”. Specyfiką przedstawionego nowego poglądu na psychologiczne podstawy moralnego wychowania dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym w warunkach współczesnych zmian w systemie kształcenia jest kreowanie integracyjnego modelu wychowania, którego podstawą jest rozwój moralnej tożsamości jednostki.
In recent years the number of Polish schools, in which the subject “ethics” is taught, has been dynamically growing. Since the number of recipients of ethical contents has been growing as well, the demand is ever greater for the abilities to redirect children and young people to religion classes, and if - for whatever reason - they cannot attend them, it is necessary to lead them to ethics lessons. A young man subject to obligatory education at present needs coherent tools and elements to build his personal moral model. In the documents issued by the ministry responsible for education and upbringing leading contents and aims of teaching ethics at school are contained and they are exposed on the basis of changes in the law concerning education. Especially Podstawa programowa (Program basis) shows organizational and ideological directives for teaching ethics on all the education stages. The proposed contents of the classes are concerned with ethical and philosophical issues. Pupils have a chance to acquaint themselves with the moral law, the moral imperative, the natural law, and the moral good. The ministerial proposition orders one to exercise the ability to discern values and to be guided by the conscience in one’s life, as well as to solve moral dilemmas at the age of moral crisis. However, it is worth remembering that ethics as a subject alternative to religion at school has a decidedly smaller number of students. This is a result of Polish educational community being rooted in the Christian tradition. Supporting ethics lessons for those who will not make the decision to participate in denominational lessons of the Roman-Catholic religion, efforts should be made so that students will not rashly give up religion lessons they attended formerly. This can be done by raising the quality of religious education and of the teachers’ competences.
PL
W ostatnich latach zwiększa się dynamicznie liczba polskich szkół, w których nauczany jest przedmiot „etyka”. Ponieważ rośnie także liczba odbiorców treści etycznych, dlatego pojawia się zapotrzebowanie na umiejętność przekierownia dzieci i młodzieży na zajęcia z religii, a jeśli z jakiegokolwiek powodu nic mogą w nich uczestniczyć, zasadne staje się doprowadzenie ich na lekcje z etyki. Podlegający obowiązkowej edukacji młody człowiek potrzebuje obecnie spójnych narzędzi i elementów do budowy osobistego modelu moralnego. W dokumentach ministerstwa właściwego do spraw oświaty i wychowania zawarte są wiodące treści i cele nauczania etyki w szkole, wyeksponowane na bazie zmian w prawie oświatowym. Szczególnie Podstawa programowa ukazuje wytyczne organizacyjne oraz ideowe dla nauczania etyki na wszystkich etapach edukacyjnych. Zaproponowane treści na zajęcia dotyczą zagadnień etycznych i filozoficznych. Uczniowie mają szansę poznawania prawa moralnego, imperatywu moralnego, prawa naturalnego, dobra moralnego. Propozycja ministerialna nakazuje ćwiczyć umiejętność rozpoznawania wartości i kierowania się sumieniem w życiu oraz rozwiązywania dylematów moralnych w dobie kryzysu moralnego. Warto jednak pamiętać, że etyka jako przedmiot alternatywny dla religii w szkole ma zdecydowanie mniejszą liczbę uczniów. Jest to rezultatem zakorzenienia w tradycji chrześcijańskiej polskiej społeczności edukacyjnej. Popierając lekcje z etyki dla tych. którzy nic zdecydują się na uczestniczenie w wyznaniowych lekcjach religii rzymskokatolickiej, należy dołożyć starań, aby uczniowie nie rezygnowali pochopnie z dotychczasowych lekcji religii. Można to uczynić poprzez podniesienie jakości kształcenia religijnego i kompetencji nauczycieli.
This short review paper focuses on Georg Lind's approach to the moral competence as described in his recent book (2016) How To Teach Morality? Promoting Deliberation and Discussion, Reducing Violence and Deceit. Berlin: Logos Verlag. Lind's dual-aspect approach is discussed as one of the leading conceptions of personal moral competence and moral cognition today. Intuitionist approach and "embodied cognition" are not enough, the author (E. Nowak) claims. As participants of social contexts and institutions, we need manifest, discoursively articulated reflection, self-reflection, and conversation. However, Lind's hypothesis of two leyers of morality, i.e., a conscious and unconscious finds evidence in cognitive sciences too. Lind's approach is not as reductionist as that of radical cognitivists. On the contrary, it combines all relevant aspects of moral cognition discussed right now, worldwide – when cognitive sciences flourish and the challenges for moral mind grow up dramatically.
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