Les travaux de Wellhausen avaient acerédité la thèse que le rituel des sacrifices contenu dans les sept premiers chapitres du Lévitique était une oeuvre surgie durant la Captivité et dont les préceptes n’avaient été mis en vigueur que dans le tempie reconstruit par Zorobabel. Des recherches littéraires plus récentes sur le rituel sont parvenues à montrer qu’il est une oeuvre composite dont les parties peuvent avoir été redigées à des époques différentes. L’ancienneté des préceptes qu’il formule peut aussi être déduite des mentions de sacrifices dans les livres sacrés préexilliques et dans la littérature de l’Orient biblique, à savoir celle de la Mésopotamie, du pays Hatti, de l’Egypte, de 1’Arabie et, tout particulièrement, dans celle de Canaan. À la lumière de ces témoignages il y a lieu d’accepter que le rituel en question remonte par ses origines à la sortie des Israëlites d’Egypte, à leur séjour au désert et à leur entrée en Canaan sous la conduite de Josué. On peut admettre seulement que, dans la captivité de Babylone, certains rites sacrificiels subirent un enrichissement et que le sacrifice expiatoire se sépara plus nettement de l’holocauste et du sacrifice de communion.
Zasadniczym problemem badawczym, podejmowanym w niniejszej pracy, jest ukazanie możliwie najpełniejszego obrazu bezprawia Rosjan wobec Sióstr Boromeuszek po wkroczeniu Armii Czerwonej do Świebodzina pod koniec stycznia 1945 r. W szczególności analizie poddane zostały relacje naocznych świadków tragicznych wydarzeń. We wspomnieniach dominuje wstrząsający obraz okrucieństwa, który dotyczy niemieckich kobiet a jeszcze bardziej sióstr katolickich. Wkład badań ma wpływ na wyjaśnienie lokalnej historii, obalenie wielu mitów powstałych wokół ostatnich dni II wojny światowej fałszujących prawdę i ukazanie często bohaterskich postaw pokrzywdzonych. Ukazanie prawdy o ofiarach reżimu ma nie tylko ocalić od zapomnienia, ale winno mieć wpływ na kształtowanie postaw empatii wobec ofiar reżimu i jednocześnie wskazać na podejmowanie pełnej odpowiedzialności za swoje decyzje i czyny dla nas, ludzi współczesnych.
EN
The main research problem undertaken in this work is to show the whole possible picture of the lawlessness of the Russians against the Sisters of St. Borromeo after the Red Army entered Świebodzin at the end of January 1945. In particular, the reports of eyewitnesses to the tragic events were analyzed. The memories are dominated by a shocking picture of cruelty, which concerns German women especially Catholic sisters. The contribution of research influences the explanation of local history, the overthrow of many myths created around the last days of World War II falsifying the truth and showing the heroic attitudes of the victims. Presenting the truth about the victims of the regime is not only to save from oblivion, but it should also influence the attitudes of empathy towards the victims of the regime and at the same time point to taking full responsibility for their decisions and actions for us contemporary people.
The author analyzes the reasons for the changes in the culture of memory – from the cult of heroes to paying homage to the victims. According to the author, four reasons played a fundamental role in this transformation. First, the religion of life, which claims that there is no greater value than the temporal life. Second, democratic egalitarianism, which undermines faith in the importance of great individuals in history. Third, the change in the attitude of European countries to war – from the belief that waging war is the most important goal of the state, to believe that the most important task is to preserve peace. Fourth, the sense of guilt of the West regarding its own past. The article explains these causes and presents some of the consequences of this change.
The subject of the following text was the image of victims of trafficking women for prostitution amongst police officers and border officers. For this purpose, surveyresearch was carried out on 114 officers from these units. Their results enabled anindication of how victims of trafficking women for prostitution are perceived amongst those surveyed. Law enforcement workers are a group that, because of the profession they do, maypotentially have the most frequent contact with human trafficking offenders. At thesame time, they are a part of society, so doubtlessly they are influenced by commonlyoccurring stereotypes and schemas. That is why it is essential to diagnose the methodsof perception of victims of human trafficking by law enforcement officers. The methodin which a victim of this crime is perceived may have a large significance, firstly for thesubjective treatment of aggrieved women, and secondly for prosecutors.The research results indicate that, in the opinion of the surveyed, victims arecharacterised above all as naive and submissive. Quite often, the respondents alsoindicated the aggrieved individuals had weak psyches, and were mindless and fearful.Excluding a few qualities characterising victims in a neutral manner, the vast majoritywere negatively coloured, putting the victim of human trafficking in a bad light. Theywere perceived as compliant, overly trusting, mentally weak and passive. On severaloccasions, answers appear in which victims were presented as greedy, devious womenwho had been lost to rapacity. In the question about the character qualities of victims,several people indicated their external appearance, which might signify a strongconnection between victims of the discussed crime and an attractive appearance. Mostlikely this is due to the fact that the researched form of human trafficking is linked withthe sexual sphere.The main source for acquiring knowledge on the subject of human traffickingwas acknowledged by the respondents as being the media as well as any training theyhad undergone. This may seem disturbing since the image of human trafficking inthe media, other than the fact it is heavily oversimplified, strongly relies on genderstereotypes which can affect perceptions and thus the way victims of human traffickingare processed. Other than this, a significant majority of police officers (84%) andborder guards (81%) had undergone training on the subject of human trafficking.Equally important is that a very small number of respondents had had in their lives anycontact with victims of human trafficking (17% of surveyed border officials and 35%of police officers). Despite this, almost everybody had deep-rooted definite beliefs todo with victims of female trafficking. Most of these convictions are therefore based onstereotypes.Amongst the respondents, there was a widespread conviction that victims of humantrafficking are predominantly women (around three quarters of all respondents). For thesurveyed, a victim of human trafficking is most often an aggrieved person forced intoprostitution – respondents said this form of crime was the most frequently occurring. A significant majority of the respondents acknowledged that the female-victim did notknow that they would be working as a prostitute. Most likely this is linked to the fact thatvictims of female trafficking are presented above all as young, inexperienced and naivegirls. This is at odds with the image of a calculating prostitute who knew the goal of herjourney. It is worth mentioning too about the distribution of answers to the questionin which surveyed police had to answer if it is more appropriate to quickly interrogatevictims or to grant them time to think. Almost 70% of those surveyed admitted theythought it more appropriate to quickly interrogate the victim. Particularly substantial were the justifications for the respondents’ choice of answers. Their analysis allows usto conclude that the respondents perceive victims of human trafficking instrumentally– above all, they see them as a tool for the effective prosecution of those committing human trafficking. This is shown by the fact they judged it important to interrogate thevictim as quickly as possible so that they could gather evidence. Some of the officersalso expressed their negative attitude to victims by accusing them of the possibility ofscheming, the susceptibility for lying or a desire for revenge on the perpetrators. Examining the research evidence suggests this is reflected in relation to the practicalconsequences of the perceptions of victims of human trafficking by law enforcementofficials as passive, naive and helpless women. Namely, these kinds of thoughts maylead to one of these victims, whose qualities fit with the commonly-held stereotypes,being identified by a law enforcement representative. Similarly, help may only be givento those people who the officers believe “really” need and deserve it (i.e. they fit theimage of a defenceless helpless “ideal” victim). Reaching law enforcement agencies andbeyond – such as the justice system – may only be achievable by those victims that fitthe stereotypes, while other people may be ignored – for example, those who had beenused for something other than sex, or older people, the active or those not physicallyattractive.
Artykuł odnosi się do etyki badań przemocy seksualnej. Zagadnienia te ujęte są w różnych kodeksach, ale ich rozproszenie oraz kierowanie do poszczególnych grup zawodowych powoduje brak szerszego ujęcia problemu. Stwierdzono, że nieetyczne jest rezygnowanie z podejmowania badań dotyczących przemocy seksualnej, ponieważ brak wniosków z rzetelnych diagnoz uniemożliwia niesienie skutecznej pomocy. Nieetyczne jest także realizowanie badań bez dokładnego respektowania zasad etycznych. Należy dołożyć wszelkich starań, aby osoby badane czuły się traktowane podmiotowo: udzielić pełnej i prawdziwej informacji o badaniu (celach, przedmiocie, przebiegu, zagrożeniach), zadbać o dobrowolną oraz świadomą zgodę, zagwarantować anonimowość badanych i poufność wypowiedzi, a także minimalizować ryzyko negatywnych skutków badania. Trzeba dążyć do osiągnięcia przez badanych korzyści: przerwania przemocy, uzyskania dostępu do informacji i interwencji. Organizujący badania są odpowiedzialni za współpracowników. Koniecznością jest przeprowadzenie selekcji kandydatów według przygotowania merytorycznego i kompetencji społecznych. Niezbędne jest stałe monitorowanie procesu badawczego i udzielanie wsparcia merytorycznego oraz psychologicznego ankieterom. Publikacja wyników musi gwarantować anonimowość respondentów i klarowne przedstawienie wyników, aby były one właściwie zinterpretowane przez odbiorców. Rekomenduje się poddawanie projektów badawczych ocenie komisji etycznej.
EN
The article describes the ethics of research on sexual violence. The aspects are studied upon in many codes, but due to the fact that they are dispersed in various articles and they are dedicated to particular professional groups, the problem is not studied on a greater scale. It was stated that it is unethical to give up research on sexual violence, as the lack of reliable research results prevents from bringing help. It is neither ethical to conduct research without respecting ethical rules. It is important to make effort to ensure participants that they are treated individually: they should be provided with full and true information concerning the research (its objectives, subject, course and risks); they should give their voluntary and conscious consent to participate; they should be assured of their anonymity and answers confidentiality; the risk of negative research consequences should be reduced to minimum. It is crucial to aim at positive research consequences - the end to violence, gaining access to information and prevention. Everyone who does research is responsible for their coworkers. It is indispensable to select candidates on the basis of their substantive preparation and social competences. It is also important to constantly monitor the research course and being supportive, including substantive and psychological help, towards research participants. The publication of results needs to guarantee respondents’ anonymity and clear way of presentation so that they are correctly interpreted by research audience. It is recommended to pass the research projects under the evaluation of ethics commissions.
Artykuł stanowi teoretyczną analizę potencjalnej roli świadków cyberbullyingu w powstrzymywaniu aktów agresji poprzez udzielanie wsparcia ofiarom, dyscyplinowanie sprawców czy swoistą bierność. Wstępem do rozważań na temat możliwych działań świadków jest przedstawienie definicji i charakterystyki zjawiska cyberbullyingu oraz omówienie znaczenia aktywizacji świadków, jak również scharakteryzowanie specyficznej ich roli w kontekście agresji realizowanej online. Druga część artykułu poświęcona jest prezentacji wyników badań wybranych autorów uwzględniających obecność świadków w cyberbullyingu.
EN
The paper analyzes potential role of witnesses in moderating cyberbullying by supporting victims, disciplining the perpetrator, or being a bystander in the process of online aggressive behaviour. An introduction to the discussion about possible witnesses’ actions is describing the definition and characteristics of cyberbullying, highlighting importance of activating this group and characterizing their specific role in cyberbullying. The second part of the article focuses on the presentation of results of several studies concerning participation of witnesses.
According to official criminal statistics, a total of 36 registered forced labour crimes were committed in Hungary between 2013 and 2019. Forced labour (Section 193 of the Criminal Code) was a separate statutory element in Hungary between July 1, 2013 and June 30, 2020. In 2019, nearly 40 forced labour cases were analysed, the sociological and criminological characteristics of which are summarised and shown in this article following the statistical review. Based on the cases we examined, it can be said that the victim has alcohol problems, is homeless and unemployed, is in extremely poor health condition, has a low intellectual level and is elderly. In terms of their gender, there was a significant number of men among the victims of forced labour. Victims of forced labour and those crimes that were committed against them are even more hidden, even more difficult to detect and to prove than are acts of sexual exploitation. These people are a ‘hidden population’, statuses such as ‘subtenants’ or ‘accepted relatives’ obviously do not reveal the real situation to police officers arriving on the scene. It is possible that this situation prevails for years and is not brought to the authorities. Jak podają oficjalne statystyki dotyczące przestępczości, w latach 2013-2016 na Węgrzech zarejestrowano 36 przestępstw związanych z pracą przymusową. W okresie od 1 lipca 2013 r. do 30 czerwca 2020 r. czyn ten był odrębnym przestępstwem uregulowanym w art. 193 węgierskiego kodeksu karnego. W niniejszym artykule zostały przedstawione wyniki przeprowadzonych analiz – statystycznej, jak i socjologiczno-kryminologicznej dotyczącej charakterystyki 40 przypadków ofiar pracy przymusowej. Na ich podstawie można stwierdzić, że ofiary tego rodzaju przestępstwa to osoby mające problem z alkoholem, bezdomne, bezrobotne, których stan zdrowia można określić jako zły, a poziom intelektualny jako niski. Zwykle to osoby w podeszłym wieku. Wśród ofiar przeważają mężczyźni. Ofiary pracy przymusowej trudno jest zidentyfikować, a popełnione przeciwko nim przestępstwa trudno wykryć. Jest to jeszcze trudniejsze niż w przypadku przestępstwa wykorzystania seksualnego. Ofiary pracy przymusowej stanowią bowiem „ukrytą” grupę. O ich faktycznej sytuacji trudno dowiedzieć się choćby funkcjonariuszom policji w trakcie interwencji na miejscu zdarzenia, a to z uwagi na fakt, że ofiary przedstawia się jako dalekich krewnych lub osoby podnajmujące mieszkanie. Niewykluczone, że sytuacje takie trwają wiele lat, a informacje o nich nie docierają do władz.
EN
According to official criminal statistics, a total of 36 registered forced labour crimes were committed in Hungary between 2013 and 2019. Forced labour (Section 193 of the Criminal Code) was a separate statutory element in Hungary between July 1, 2013 and June 30, 2020. In 2019, nearly 40 forced labour cases were analysed, the sociological and criminological characteristics of which are summarised and shown in this article following the statistical review. Based on the cases we examined, it can be said that the victim has alcohol problems, is homeless and unemployed, is in extremely poor health condition, has a low intellectual level and is elderly. In terms of their gender, there was a significant number of men among the victims of forced labour. Victims of forced labour and those crimes that were committed against them are even more hidden, even more difficult to detect and to prove than are acts of sexual exploitation. These people are a ‘hidden population’, statuses such as ‘subtenants’ or ‘accepted relatives’ obviously do not reveal the real situation to police officers arriving on the scene. It is possible that this situation prevails for years and is not brought to the authorities.
Problem przestępstwa stalkingu na świecie nie traci na aktualności. Szybki rozwój nowych narzędzi komunikacji oraz internetu sprawił, że popełnianie przestępstwa uporczywego nękania staje się coraz łatwiejsze. Choć przeważająca część literatury koncentruje się na kobietach jako ofiarach stalkingu, to jednak – ze względu na ciągle zmieniające się role społeczne – spojrzenie na problem mężczyzn w tym zakresie jest niezbędne. Artykuł przedstawi zarys stalkingu w Polsce, kładąc akcent na mężczyzn jako ofiary tego zjawiska. Zostanie dokonana analiza czterech spraw sądowych, w których mężczyźni byli ofiarami stalkingu po związku. Autorka scharakteryzuje kobietę-sprawcę i mężczyznę-ofiarę, nakreśli motywy działania sprawcy oraz modus operandi. Przedstawione studium przypadków wykaże, że przebieg uporczywego nękania mężczyzn przez kobiety może być równie dotkliwy jak w przypadku stalkingu kobiet. Praca zostanie wzbogacona o odniesienia do badań międzynarodowych oraz rekomendacje dotyczące postrzegania kryminalizacji stalkingu.
EN
The problem of the crime of stalking around the world is still relevant. The rapid development of new communication tools and the Internet has made it easier than ever before to commit a crime of persistent harassment. Although most of the literature focuses on women as victims due to constantly changing social roles, it is essential to look at the male perspective in that area. The article presents the outline picture of stalking in Poland, emphasizing men as victims of this phenomenon. The paper presents an analysis of the four court cases in which men were victims of post-relationship stalking. It focuses on the female stalker and male victim characteristics, motives of the perpetrator, and modus operandi. The value of the case study shows that the course of persistent harassment of men by women can be just as severe as in female stalking. The paper is enriched with references to international researches and recommendations for adjusting the criminalization of stalking to the male perception of persistent harassment.
This article presents the rights guaranteed by the Polish Constitution to the victims of human trafficking crime which include: the right to respect of human dignity, the right to court, the right to a fair trial, the right to privacy, the right of children to special care from the state, the right to freedom of expression, the right to free medical treatment.
The article refers to the problem of sexual crimes of Roman Catholic priests. It includes an attempt of estimation of the range of the problem, based on available statistics and literature, as well as examples of reaction to the problem from the Church itself and from the state. The author analyzes potential criminogenic factors of sexual crimes in the Church, such as: the co-called “clerical culture”, the priesthood itself as a risk factor, celibacy of the clergy and homosexual orientation of the perpetrators. The article also describes the criminal law aspects of the problem, especially the punishable omission of denunciation, which is particularly important in the light of accusations of “covering up” sexual crimes by the Church or helping the perpetrators to avoid responsibility.
PL
Artykuł porusza problematykę przestępstw seksualnych duchownych Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. Zawiera próbę przybliżenia samej skali zjawiska przestępstw seksualnych popełnianych przez duchownych w świetle dostępnych statystyk i literatury, z uwzględnieniem wybranych krajów oraz Polski, jak również wskazania przykładów reakcji Kościoła i państwa na ten problem. Przedstawione są także czynniki kryminogenne przestępczości seksualnej w Kościele, takie jak: tzw. "kultura klerykalna", sam stan duchowny jako czynnik ryzyka, celibat duchownych oraz orientacja homoseksualna sprawców. Opracowanie porusza również prawnokarne aspekty przestępstw seksualnych duchownych, a w szczególności problematykę karalnego zaniechania denuncjacji, co ma szczególne znaczenie w świetle kierowanych pod adresem Kościoła zarzutów o "tuszowanie" przestępstw seksualnych popełnionych przez duchownych lub pomaganie sprawcom w uniknięciu odpowiedzialności.
This paper concerns the road Poland is on to introduce restorative justice procedures within its criminal justice system. The author describes the difficulties Poland has already overcome and is still facing. In addition, the paper shows the possible dangers we are not willing to see yet. The restorative justice procedures are introduced in the name of victims. They are aimed at observing the victims' rights and interests within the criminal justice system. Restorative justice is also to bring back the conflicts to their owners. The new developments are aimed at achieving this goal. The author discusses the invisible aspects which, if not diagnosed, named and prevented in time, can steal again the conflict from those most involved in it. It was once stolen by lawyers, judges and prosecutors who officially acted for the victims' good and support. Today, an identical process is possible with mediator taking the lawyers place.
W artykule przedstawiono aktualny stan wiedzy na temat wykorzystywania seksualnego nieletnich przez księży katolickich, ze szczególnym zwróceniem uwagi na badania empiryczne dotyczące profilu sprawcy i wpływu czynników kontekstualnych przemocy. Podkreślono, że jest to grupa atypowych przestępców seksualnych, do której nie pasuje popularne w mediach wyrażenie ksiądz-pedofil, a także wskazano na konieczność uwzględnienia czynników kontekstualnych przy ocenie tego zjawiska w instytucji o globalnym charakterze, ale działającej w zróżnicowanych warunkach geograficznych i kulturowych.
EN
The article presents the current state of knowledge about sexual abuse of children by catholic priests, focusing on empirical research on the profile of the abuser and on the effects of contextual factors. It is emphasized that this is a group of atypical abusers who do not match the “paedophile priest” label commonly used by the media. Furthermore, the article shows that it is necessary to consider contextual factors while assessing child sexual abuse in an institution which is global but also variable in terms of geographical and cultural conditions.
Si tratta di cosi dette mangiatoie di pietra, conservate nelle due case tardo antiche di Cirenaica (oggi Libia): casa di Paulos a Tolemaide (6 esemplari) e in una casa anonima (9 esemplari) presso la Basilica Centrale a Cirene. La piu problematica sarebbe la funzione originaria di questi blocchi rettangolari di pietra ricavati dentro e messi in linea, perche gli studi precedenti di molti monumenti simili dell'Africa del Nord (oggi Tunisia e Algeria) non danno la risposta definitiva a questa domanda: se si tratterebbe delle vere mangiatoie per i cavalli oppure dei recipienti per l’annona in natura oppure, nei casi di ambienti cristiani eon le „mangiatoie”, dei recipienti per le offerte di terra dalia parte dei fedeli o per i doni a loro dalla parte della chiesa ai fedeli furono le vere stalle. Le installazioni di Cirenaica, insieme eon le „mangiatoie” del Santuario d’Asclepio di El Bayda, non sono ancora conosciute ne pubblicate, sicuramente non hanno servito ai cavalli. L’ultimo caso sembra il piu chiaro, ed e molto probabile che nelle „mangiatoie” del luogo deponevano le loro offerte portate al dio della Salute dai malati visitatori del santuario. Si puó chiedere se la vicinanza stretta delle chiese, sia a Tolemaide, sia a Cirene, non potrebbe indicare la funzione simile delle „mangiatoie” in queste citta antiche. Purtroppo le fonti scritte cristiane a ąuesto proposito ne taccino oppure non sono ancora scoperte e studiate.
From Sillamäe to Goli Otok. NKVD and Labour Camps in the Baltic countries, Central–Eastern Europe, and the Balkans after World War II. Scale of the Phenomenon and Daily LifeThe article considers the post–war history of several hundred labour and NKVD camps located in the Baltic states, Central–Eastern Europe, and the Balkans. After wartime hostilities came to an end these regions became subjected to the strict control of the Soviet NKVD and the communist regime in particular countries. The Stalinist administration of such penal institutions remained clearly discernible to 1953. The death of Joseph Stalin did not put an end to the history of the labour camps in the titular region: they continued to exist, although in an increasingly more lenient form and with lesser Soviet presence. The geographic area of the reflections encompasses two symbolic penal institutions: Sillamäe in Estonia, on the Baltic, and the infamous Naked Island (Goli Otok) off the Adriatic coast. The line running from Estonia to Yugoslavia resembled, in its simplest form, the course of the Iron Curtain separating Western Europe from the Soviet sphere of influence, which included the Baltic states, ultimately incorporated into the Soviet Union, as well as Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia. The author included information about the localisation of the camps, their sizes and living conditions, as well as the universally applied repression against the inmates.
Pamięć zbiorowa jako zespół wyobrażeń członków wspólnoty o wybranych wydarzeniach z przeszłości stanowi cenne źródło wiedzy o kulturowej oraz komunikacyjnej kondycji jednostki i społeczeństw. Na wstępie przedstawione zostaną różne próby zdefiniowania, czym jest pamięć zbiorowa, aby wskazać na jej charakterystyczne cechy konstytutywne. W dalszej części rozważań zostaną opisane zmiany, jakie zaszły w pamięci zbiorowej Polaków od momentu zakończenia II wojny światowej aż do współczesności. Ponadto uwaga badawcza skoncentruje się na związku pamięci zbiorowej z mediami, które nadają wydarzeniom z przeszłości społecznie podzielane znaczenie i wymiar kulturowy. Celem analizy będzie odpowiedź na pytanie, w jaki sposób współczesny niemiecki dyskurs medialny kształtuje niemiecką kulturę pamięci i wpływa na stosunki polsko-niemieckie. Przedmiot analizy stanowią wybrane niemieckie filmy telewizyjne, które potwierdzają panujące w Polsce od kilku lat przekonanie, że Niemcy dystansują się od odpowiedzialności za zbrodnie popełnione podczas II wojny światowej.
EN
Collective memory as a set of beliefs held by members of a community about some past events is a valuable source of knowledge on the cultural and communicative condition of individuals and whole societies. At the beginning of the article, in order to point out its distinguishing features, the author presents various attempts to define collective memory. Next, he describes changes in the Poles’ collective memory from the end of World War II to the present. Moreover, he concentrates on the relationship between collective memory and the media, which impart a shared meaning and cultural dimension to past events. The aim of his analysis is to answer the question how the current German media discourse shapes the German culture of memory and impacts on the relationships between Poland and Germany. The analysis covers selected German television films. They confirm the belief, popular in Poland for the last few years, that the Germans are becoming reluctant to take responsibility for their crimes committed during World War II.
Il testo sacro parte dalla costatazione che l’uomo in quanto peccatore ha bisogno della conversione ossia è chiamato a riconoscere di aver bisogno del perdono per le mancanze, imperfezioni, infedeltà e cioè per i peccati commessi. La conversione è questione della verità e dell’onestà. Non è poi da trascurare il fatto dell’universalità della coscienza umana in cerca del perdono e della riconciliazione con la divinità. I testi egizi, mesopotamici, ugaritici, greci e romani confermano in misura notevole quel desiderio innato della pace con il Divino e quindi del perdono dei propri torti. Più della civiltà naturale, quella rivelata ne dà non solo testimonianza ma anche le ragioni teologiche: Dio d’Israele è non solo un Essere Assoluto, ma anche una Persona santa e morale, quindi dalle creature fatte a Sua immagine e somiglianza esige un comportarsi conforme al Suo agire. Per il fatto che Israele è stato scelto Suo popolo eletto, rimane soggetto alla debolezza e alla infedetà, ma è proprio per questa circostanza chiamato alla conversione continua e in seguito darne un esempio di speranza e garanzia di esito per gli altri popoli. Le pratiche penitenziali, gli atti di conversione nell’Antico Testamento sono sparsi lungo il testo intero, vuol dire che la conversione accompagna tutte le tappe della storia della salvezza, e non può essere diversamente. Dio continuamente chiama il Suo popolo a convertirsi per bocca dei profeti, per mezzo della Parola di Dio che manda ai figli diletti ma così spesso ribelli. Il popolo e i suoi singoli membri rispondono in spirito di ubbidienza e di riconoscenza della verità „tutti abbiamo peccato, ci siamo comportati da sciocchi” (cfr Ger 14, 20; Dn 3, 29). Il rito penitenziale sia quello privato che communitario nell’AT risulta molto sviluppato e ricco. Le principali manifestazioni sono: preghiera, confessione dei peccati, digiuno, elemosina, il Giorno della Riconciliazione ( Yom Kippur ), diversi sacrifici cruenti, gesti, vestiti, pianto, cospargersi con la cenere, abluzioni (praticate specialmente dai farisei e a Qumran). Non di rado i profeti accusano il formalismo di quelle pratiche d’altronde impressionanti e ricche di significato. Quale valore hanno avuto quelle praciche in quel tempo quando non c’era ancora il sacramento della riconciliazione? Soprattutto il valore della verità stessa: l’uomo in quanto tale è peccatore il che in lingua biblica vuol dire che ha bisogno di Dio per vivere, per esistere e per agire in conformità con il Suo disegno; poi vuol dire riconoscere Dio quale giudice delle proprie azioni dell‘uomo; in terzo luogo vuol dire che le pratiche penitenziali anticotestamentarie dimostrano l’altissimo livello della spiritualità d’Israele. Infine vuol dire riconoscere Dio in quanto misericordioso, buono e giusto, generoso nel perdonare e pronto nel riconciliarsi con gli uomini – figli ribelli mandando loro il Suo Figlio Unigenito in quanto Agnello immolato e Testimone della misericordia del Padre.
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