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EN
The development of pre-school education and national preschool pedagogy in the 60th of the 20th century was characterized by the search for more perfect forms and meanings. There were difficulties, but scientific pedagogy, pedagogical practices departed from authoritarianism. The researchers and advanced educators sought to update the educational technologies. Several studies of this period deal with moral development of children of primary school age. For example, T. Markova, R. Zhukovs’ka showed how the moral development of young children was held under the influence of their communication with children of senior preschool age. The researchers emphasized that moral education of young children was outlined the definite sequence. In the studies published in the collection of scientific papers «Formation of Collective Relations of Senior Preschool Children» there were considered the basic theoretical aspects of the problem. The authors aimed to reveal the specifics of the emergence and strengthening of the relations of preschool children. In the quality of the basic research methods there were used the observations and further analysis of the relationships of children. Along with each researcher there were created the experimental conditions in which children could more fully demonstrate their integrity. It was determined that the main objective of the research was the formation of positive moral relations between children. However, the approaches to its solution each researcher had his own. For example, V. Nechayeva made the emphasis on the mastering by children the development of the rules of conduct and the use of these rules in various independent activities. H. Hodina in accordance with the peculiarities of the problem found the special methodological approach that ensured the creation of the optimal conditions for the exercise of children’s independence. The methods used by L. Penyevs’ka allowed most closely to watch the displacements in the individual development of a child, in the nature of its assessments, where there was most clearly seen the moral orientation of a child as a member of the children’s emerging team. Historiographical analysis of the problems of moral education of preschool children has showed that there has not been conducted the holistic study of these issues. Each scholar’s approaches to the problem solving were different. It is determined that in the researches there is given the description of children’s relationship till the beginning of the research work, then there is traced the development and strengthening of the positive relationships between children, the beginning of the collective relationships during the conducting and completion of the forming experiment. There have been widely used in comparing the individual stages of moral development of children.
EN
This paper describes the manipulative behaviour of children in their relationships with parents in situations of parental demands and prohibitions. The results of research into the frequency and types of manipulation used by school children are also described.
EN
This research project focuses on the presentation of sexuality in children before they enter the school system. The study provides theoretical basis of sexuality and sex education. Included in the research project are the result of the on site study with parents and children of the preschool and kindergarden age and also the teachers working with this target group. Results not only describe sexual presentation of the children but also the reactions of others to those presentations.
EN
This paper describes the current national curriculum of pre-primary education in Slovakia. An area of education focused on the development of literary and linguistic literacy in pre-school children is defined here. Diagnostic competence allows teachers to evaluate children’s level, even regarding initial signs of reading and writing skills, as well as early signs of literacy that manifest themselves before the child starts attending elementary school. The contribution presents the views of teachers pre-primary education on linguistic and literary literacy of children.
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2005
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vol. 8
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issue 1
81-104
PL
Przedmiotem analiz są wyniki badań dotyczących uczuć religijnych dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym, otrzymane bezpośrednio (z wypowiedzi dzieci) oraz pośrednio (z wypowiedzi ich matek). Zbadano 90 dzieci w wieku 4, 5 i 6 lat za pomocą metody obrazkowej oraz przeprowadzono wywiad z ich matkami. Przedstawiono analizę rozwoju treściowej reprezentacji w zakresie uczuć religijnych u dzieci, a następnie porównano dane uzyskane od dzieci i ich matek, biorąc pod uwagę treść oraz sposób ekspresji opisywanych uczuć. Omówiono relacje w obrębie uczuć pozytywnych i negatywnych, natomiast pogłębionej analizie statystycznej poddano uczucia negatywne. Stwierdzono, że na poziomie prawidłowości globalnych obydwa źródła danych o uczuciach religijnych dzieci wykazują bardzo zbliżoną jakość. Natomiast analiza szczegółowa ujawnia różnice o zasięgu lokalnym, przy czym otrzymane wyniki nie zaprzeczają sobie, ale wzajemnie się uzupełniają.
EN
The study concerns religious feelings in preschool children as reported by the children and by their mothers. 90 children at the ages 4, 5 and 6 were studied by means of a picture method and interviews with their mothers were carried out. The paper includes a contents analysis of the representations of religious feelings in children as well as a comparison of the data from children and their mothers with the focus on both the contents and the way of expressing the feelings reported. The relationships between positive and negative feelings are discussed and more detailed statistical analysis was applied to negative feelings. It was found that on the level of general tendencies the both sources of reports concerning children’s religious feelings showed similar quality. A more detailed analysis discovered certain minor differences, however, the data from the two sources were complementary rather than contradictory.
EN
The authors of this study present the results of surveys in significant areas of social peda-gogy relating to both the prevention of overweight and obesity in children, and healthy lifestyle edu-cation. The psychosocial aspects of overweight and obesity in early age and preschool children are monitored in the context of selected socio-demographic indicators in the Czech Republic, Great Brit-ain, the USA, Australia, some European countries, Iran and China. The purpose of such oriented stud-ies is to find appropriate preventive, pedagogical or therapeutic interventions that could contribute to the elimination of risk factors in the particular societies.
EN
Objectives. The aim of the study is to investigate reading comprehension and metacomprehension as they occur in preschool age in relation to sociocultural environment of the family, in comparison with traditional predictors of beginning reading acquisition represented by several indicators of phonological awareness. Participants and setting. A group of 327 preschool- age children from middle-SES families and 55 children from low-SES families were compared. Hypotheses. It was assumed that children from low-SES families would perform worse than children from middle-SES families namely in literacy tasks requiring specific social experience with reading, i.e. text comprehension and metacognitive monitoring. Statistical analysis. The differences between the groups were tested using independent samples t-tests, monitoring accuracy on the correct and incorrect answers using the chi-squared test and the relationship between monitoring accuracy and performance in the two text comprehension tasks using 2-way ANO VA. Results. Results showed that children from low- SES families demonstrated significantly lower overall performance in all literacy tasks, however, the group differences in text comprehension varied in relation to the task difficulty (complexity and the level of comprehension). Moreover, in metacognitive monitoring, children from low-SES families showed significantly higher tendency to underestimate their correct performance, indicating lower self-esteem. Study limitations. The main limitation of the study was the lack of information about everyday reading behaviour in children’s family environment.
EN
Children’s game makes a part of children’s lives. The paper provides partial results of empirical research focused on children’s game in the home and school environment. The character of the empirical research was diagnostic and quantitative. The subject of the research was children’s game and its implementation for children under 12 years of age. There were 218 individual respondents from all over Slovakia who participated in the individual interviews. They gave oral answer to questions about the game in their childhood and the way it way realized. Here we also present the approach of teachers and psychologists. Due to political-pedagogical character, we divided the game and the respondents into three categories according to the age and childhood.
EN
The subject of the study is preconceptions of pre-primary education children about the selected phenomenon of “learning”. We were interested in whether there are differences in children’s identified preconceptions regarding intellectual abilities. Identifying such a difference could be one indicator of giftedness that could also be useful in early educational diagnostics. The research design was mixed; data were obtained through semi-structured flexible micro-interviews made individually with 39 children. Conclusions of the research investigation point to a difference in cognitive and structural components of children’s identified preconceptions and a difference in terms of their intellectual abilities while confirming the diagnostic potential of children’s preconceptions to reveal giftedness also in children of pre-school age.
EN
The author tackles the subject of children’s literature, described by Jerzy Cieślikowski as “children’s folklore”. Her area of interest centres mainly around poetry addressed to children, which is considered the closest form of literature to this age group. Poetry refers to forms of activity natural for children: rhythmic movement, rhyming, singing, creating new words, asking questions, etc. The article points to the educational role of language games (plays) in poetry, which both answer children’s natural developmental needs and stimulate their linguistic competencies. The first part of the article discusses the sources of language play in poetry. The author highlights the role of the works of Jan Brzechwa and Julian Tuwim, who in the 1930s were the first to employ word play, unconventional use of idioms and proverbs, and nonsensical linguistic associations. They became a source of inspiration for contemporary children’s poets. The paper further analyses selected poems whose common feature is the use of language games not only to entertain but to educate and inspire creativity.The poems were divided into the following categories: poems-plays on sounds (letters), poems- plays on rhyme and rhythm, poems-plays on words, poems-plays on idioms and proverbs, poems-questions and poems-associations. The conclusion points to the role of adults as guides in the world of poetry for children and their role in preparing children to receive and understand the message of poetry.
PL
Rozwój ruchowy dziecka jest nie tylko warunkiem prawidłowego funkcjonowania fizjologicznego, ale i fundamentem rozwoju ogólnego dziecka. Jak wynika z przeglądu badań dokonanych na łamach tekstu, zajęcia muzyczno-ruchowe prowadzone przez kompetentnych pedagogów mogą wspomagać nie tylko rozwój ruchowy i muzyczny, ale i stanowić podstawę do harmonizacji poznawczych, emocjonalnych i społecznych sfer rozwoju dziecka.
EN
The development of movement is not only essential to maintain proper physiological functions and skills of a child, but also fundamental for its general development. According to the research review described further in the article, music and movement classes conducted by competent teachers may not only promote physical and musical development, but also provide a basis for harmonizing the cognitive, emotional and social spheres of a child development.
EN
This article deals with the theme of paratheatrical performance art used in working with children. It touches on the problem of creative work using a literary text with children. It describes examples of performance-related actions motivated by lyrical compositions. Children interpret the text through the prism of their own experiences, based on their individual way of seeing and experiencing the world. These activities allow the child free creative expression, thus excluding schematic and algorithmic approach.
EN
A variety of innovative approaches in the system of preschool children physical education that may be used with children of preschool age are given in the article. Based on the analysis of the scientific literature on the designated topic, it was determined that the use of different innovative approaches in the system of preschool children physical education has a positive effect on physical development and physical fitness of children. Preschool children’s physical education is the educational process in which physical exercises are the main form of children’s physical education. Due to the analysis of literary sources it is shown that the result of pedagogical innovations depends not only on their internal capacity, but is largely determined by the teacher’s personal qualities, his pedagogical skills, in other words the teacher’s readiness to the innovative activity. One of the main objectives of preschool education is to create favorable conditions for children’s harmonious physical development for the purpose of increasing resistance to infections, as well as for the purpose of gradual and systematic hardening. A complete solution of health and educational tasks promotes the integrated use of both traditional and non-traditional organizational forms and methods of physical education. According to the research, the innovative technologies, alternative author’s programs with non-traditional approaches to physical education are not used in practice of preschool educational establishments of Ukraine. Physical culture classes and sports harden the child and stimulate his emotional sphere. The development of interest in motion is based on the child’s nutritional needs to be strong, brave, clever. Motor activity in physical education prepares the child for employment. During different physical education activities the discipline, the desire to succeed, perseverance are brought up in preschool children. Successful motor activity in peer group, positive evaluation of the efforts of the older child, self-awareness, quality of exercise, the joy of participation in active games – all these contribute to the development of emotional-sensual sphere. The analysis of literary sources showed that the use of a variety of innovative approaches in the system of physical education positively influence the level of preschool children physical development and physical preparedness.
PL
Celem artykułu jest ukazanie różnic w poziomie komunikacji dzieci przedszkolnych z głęboką i znaczną wadą słuchu oraz porównanie ich poziomu z poziomem dzieci w normie słuchowej. Wszystkie wyodrębnione grupy pochodzą z rodzin słyszących. Na podstawie badań ustalono poziom umiejętności językowych dzieci z głęboką i znaczną wadą słuchu i porównano go z poziomem osiągniętym przez dzieci słyszące, co umożliwiło określenie stopnia rozwoju mowy (normatywny, opóźniony czy zaburzony u dzieci z grupy badanej). Uzyskane wyniki potwierdziły istnienie różnic ilościowo-jakościowych pomiędzy dziećmi należącymi do badanych grup. Analiza poszczególnych podkategorii wykazała ciekawą zależność: ważniejszą rolę odgrywa „dopasowanie językowe” (mode match), czyli wspólnota doświadczeń językowych pomiędzy dzieckiem niedosłyszącym a jego słyszącą matką, niżpoziom funkcjonowania werbalnego dzieci per se.
EN
The purpose of the article is to show the differences in the level of communication of preschool children with profound and severe hearing impairment and children in the hearing norm. All the studied groups of children come from hearing families. Based on the research, the level of language skills of children with profound and severe hearing impairment was determined and compared to the level obtained by hearing children, thus determining the degree of speech development (normative, delayed or disturbed) of the children in the study group. The obtained results confirmed the existence of quantitative and qualitative differences between the children belonging to the studied groups. The analysis of individual subcategories showed the existence of an interesting relationship. An important role is played by the “mode match,” which is a community of language experiences between a hearing-impaired child and their hearing mother, not the level of verbal functioning of children per se.
Psychologia Rozwojowa
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2013
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vol. 18
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issue 3
87–108
EN
The paper presents the results of research on identification of creative preschoolers via observation of their overt behavior in two settings: at home and in the kindergarten. A model of preschoolers’ creative activity as well as two original observational sheets were prepared on the basis of the knowledge of the subject. The data were collected form a sample of parents and teachers of 235 preschoolers. The main categories of creative activity at home were: humour, autonomy, self-expression, persistence, fantasy/imagination, stubbornness; in the kindergarten they were: exploration, control/autonomy, engagement. The results show that the relationship between the parents’ and teachers’ ratings was very weak. The children exhibited a wide range of creative behaviors across the main categories rather than a full pattern (syndrome) of creative behavior. These findings support the existence of a large and at the same time dispersed creative potential of preschoolers, very diversified patterns of creative behaviors, and small developmental changes within this range.
EN
The purpose of this study was to find out and verify relationships between the amount of organized activities (OAs) of children in preschool age, mother’s trust in organismic development and maternal scaffolding quality during mother-child play. Thirty-four pairs of mothers and their children aged 52-83 months participated in this study. The data was collected through a questionnaire and by observation of the game. Results revealed that higher educated mothers and mothers with higher trust in organismic development showed less poor-quality scaffolding during play in comparison to mothers without higher education and to mothers with lower trust in organismic development. Although higher educated mothers can excessively structure their children’s leisure time through OAs, there did not appear any effect of this on the autonomy support during the play and therefore on the scaffolding quality. This study brings a new view to issues of intensive parenting and the excessive structuring of children’s time.
CS
Cílem práce bylo prozkoumat vztahy mezi mírou organizovaných aktivit dětí v předškolním věku, přesvědčením matky o přirozeném vývoji a kvalitou strategické pomoci (scaffolding) během společné hry s dítětem. Výzkumu se zúčastnilo 34 dvojic matek se svými dětmi ve věku od 52 do 83 měsíců (z toho 14 matek s vysokoškolským vzděláním). Data byla získána pozorováním společné hry se stavebnicí a pomocí dotazníků zjišťujících postoj matky k vývoji dítěte a míru organizovaných aktivit dětí. Bylo zjištěno, že u vysokoškolsky vzdělaných matek a matek s vyšším přesvědčením o přirozeném vývoji se objevuje méně nekvalitního scaffoldingu oproti matkám bez vysokoškolského vzdělání a s nižším přesvědčením o přirozeném vývoji. Ačkoli do organizovaných aktivit mimo mateřskou školu zapisují své děti více matky s VŠ vzděláním, docházka do těchto aktivit v rámci mateřské školy se u dětí matek s různým vzděláním neliší. Přestože matky s vysokoškolským vzděláním mohou nadměrně strukturovat volný čas dítěti skrze organizované aktivity, nebyla zjištěna souvislost této tendence na poskytování autonomie ve hře, a tedy na kvalitu scaffoldingu. Práce přináší nový pohled na problematiku intenzivního rodičovství a nadměrné strukturace času.
PL
W artykule poruszono kwestię kształcenia kompetencji medialnych u dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym. Przedstawiono ten aspekt w ujęciu teoretycznym oraz praktycznym na przykładzie programu „Przedszkolak w świecie mediów” – realizowanego w Niepublicznym Naukowym Przedszkolu Integracyjnym Mini College w Kielcach. Jest to jeden ze sposobów edukacji medialnej, która w przekonaniu dyrekcji wspomnianego przedszkola, kadry pedagogicznej oraz rodziców przedszkolaków, jest konieczna w XXI w. Współcześnie dzieci są odbiorcami mediów od najmłodszych lat. Często radzą sobie również z obsługą urządzeń technologicznych. Mimo to kompetencje instrumentalne nie wystarczą, gdyż zewsząd napływają do nich różnego typu przekazy medialne. W związku z tym edukację medialną należy wprowadzać od etapu przedszkolnego. Dzieci powinny zdawać sobie sprawę zarówno z korzyści, jak i zagrożeń płynących z mediów. Zadaniem nauczyciela jest dać im wskazówki do odbioru mediów, by racjonalnie z nich korzystały, czerpiąc z tego zarówno zabawę, jak i wiedzę.
EN
The article deals with the training of media competence in children of preschool age. We present this aspect in terms of theoretical and practical on the example of the program – “Preschool in the media world” – realized in Non-Public Scientific Integration Nursery Mini College in Kielce. This is one of the ways of media education, which, in the management of the said kindergarten, teaching staff and parents of preschoolers, is necessary in the twenty-first century. Today children are the recipients of the media from an early age. Often they cope well with the support of technology. Despite this, the competence of instrumental not enough, because everywhere are coming to these different types of media messages. Therefore media education should be introduced from kindergarten to accompany children in the media world. Children should be aware of both the benefits and risks of the media. The teacher’s task is to give them directions to the reception of the media to reasonably benefit from them, drawing from both the fun, as well as knowledge.
EN
The problem of the formation of values and value relationships of a child in preschool age is an important psychological and pedagogical goal. Values are considered as guidelines necessary for a person as a separate “coordinate system” for a concrete assessment of events, one’s own actions, and various aspects of reality. They are the main components of the personality structure, as well as culturally-shaped regulators of behavior and activity. Preschool age is an important stage in the formation and development of personality. This is a period of active knowledge of oneself and the world, the development of basic values, norms of behavior and relationships. Value relationships are considered as a component of the content of education, as a component of the holistic worldview of an individual. Today, it is axiology that serves as the methodological basis for the development of the theory and practice of personality value relations, since it is a doctrine of the nature of values, their place in reality, and the structure of the value world.
PL
Problem kształtowania wartości i relacji wartości dziecka w wieku przedszkolnym jest ważnym celem psychologicznym i pedagogicznym. Wartości traktuje się jako wytyczne, które są niezbędne dla człowieka jako odrębny „układ współrzędnych” dla konkretnej oceny wydarzeń, własnych działań i różnych aspektów rzeczywistości. Są one głównymi składnikami struktury osobowości, a także ukształtowanymi kulturowo regulatorami zachowań i aktywności. Wiek przedszkolny to ważny etap w kształtowaniu i rozwoju osobowości. To okres aktywnego poznawania siebie i świata, kształtowania podstawowych wartości, norm zachowania i relacji. Relacje wartości są uważane za składnik treści edukacji, element całościowego światopoglądu jednostki. Dziś to aksjologia służy jako metodologiczna podstawa rozwoju teorii i praktyki relacji wartości osobowości, ponieważ jest to doktryna o naturze wartości, ich miejscu w rzeczywistości i strukturze świata wartości.
RU
Проблема формирования ценностей и ценностных отношений ребенка в дошкольном возрасте является важной психолого-педагогической целью. Ценности рассматриваются как руководящие ориентиры, необходимые человеку в качестве отдельной «системы координат» для конкретного оценивания событий, собственных поступков, различных аспектов действительности. Они являются основными составляющими структуры личности, а также культурно-сформированными регуляторами поведения и деятельности. Дошкольный возраст – важный этап в становлении и развитии личности. Это период активного познания себя и мира, освоения базовых ценностей, норм поведения и взаимоотношений. Ценностные отношения рассматриваются как компонент содержания образования, как компонент целостного мировоззрения личности. Сегодня именно аксиология служит методологической основой разработки теории и практики ценностных отношений личности, поскольку является учением о природе ценностей, об их месте в реальности, о структуре ценностного мира.
EN
 The aim of the research was the analysis of the connections between cognitive flexibility, planning ability and locus of control in the situations of successes and failures in the group of preschool children. 97 examinees participated in the research (Mmonths = 59) attending to kindergartens in Lublin. The following methods were used in the study: The Scale of Locus of Control for Preschool Children by Barbara Szmigielska (1996), Tower of London TOL DX, second edition (Culbertson, Zillmer, 2011) and an experimental trial examining mental flexibility based on the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) by Philip D. Zelazo (2006) and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, in the Polish adaptation of Aleksandra Jaworowska (2002). It was assumed that the high efficiency of cognitive flexibility and planning abilities should coexist with more internal than external locus of control. Children who plan better and are able to change their attitude fluently during their work have more effective actions. This, in turn, should favor a higher internalization of successes, and in the case of failures, it should lead to the development of more adaptive strategies aimed at modifying one’s own actions to avoid failures in future. The hypothesis has been confirmed. Additional analyzes carried out with reference to gender revealed, that girls and boys didn’t differ in terms of the analyzed variables.
PL
Celem badań była analiza powiązań między giętkością poznawczą i zdolnością do planowania a poczuciem kontroli sukcesów oraz niepowodzeń wśród dzieci przedszkolnych. W badaniach wzięło udział 97 dzieci (Mmiesiące = 59) uczęszczających do lubelskich przedszkoli. Poczucie kontroli badano za pomocą Skali Poczucia Kontroli u Dzieci Przedszkolnych Barbary Szmigielskiej (1996), zdolność do planowania – drugą edycją Testu Wieży Londyńskiej TOL DX (Culbertson, Zillmer 2011), natomiast zdolność do przełączania się – próbą eksperymentalną wzorowaną na Dwuwymiarowym Teście Sortowania Kart dla Dzieci Philipa D. Zelazo (2006) oraz Teście Sortowania Kart z Wisconsin w polskiej adaptacji Aleksandry Jaworowskiej (2002). Założono, że wysoka sprawność w zakresie giętkości poznawczej oraz zdolności do planowania będzie współwystępować z bardziej wewnętrznym poczuciem kontroli zdarzeń. Dzieci lepiej planujące i umiejące płynnie zmieniać nastawienie w trakcie wykonywanej pracy charakteryzują się wyższą skutecznością podejmowanych działań. To z kolei powinno sprzyjać wyższej internalizacji sukcesów, zaś w przypadku niepowodzeń powinno prowadzić do opracowywania bardziej adaptacyjnych strategii ukierunkowanych na modyfikację własnych sposobów działania w celu uniknięcia porażek w przyszłości. Hipoteza się potwierdziła. Dodatkowe analizy prowadzone z podziałem na płeć nie wykazały różnic między dziewczynkami i chłopcami w zakresie analizowanych zmiennych.
EN
Both executive functions and locus of control start to develop in childhood and represent different nature. However, do they develop quite independently? Locus of control is an important dimension of personality which may be located on the continuum with two ends: internal and external locus of control. The research repeatedly indicate that in developmental changes of locus of control the educational influences are regarded as a key factor (Kulas, 1998; Loeb, 1975). More contemporary research suggest that there might be also biological basis of locus of control (Declerck, Boone et al., 2006; Kochanska, Murray et al., 2000). Specifically, brain mechanisms responsible for self-regulation might be linked to biological bases of locus of control. In self-regulation processes, executive functions play the key role as they have an influence on the efficacy of intentional human behaviours. High efficacy of behaviours and – as a consequence - the feeling of satisfaction, may support the formation of internal locus of control. The research objective is to determine the connection between executive function’s efficiency and locus of control in five-year old children. In spite of lack of empirical evidence from small children, it was assumed that children with high executive function’s efficiency manifest more often internal locus of control (in contrast to children with low executive function’s efficiency.
PL
Zarówno funkcje wykonawcze, jak i poczucie umiejscowienia kontroli wzmocnień zaczynają się kształtować już w okresie dzieciństwa. Wprawdzie reprezentują one odmienną naturę, ale czy rozwijają się zupełnie niezależnie od siebie? Wielokrotnie wskazywano, iż w zmianach rozwojowych poczucia kontroli istotną rolę odgrywają oddziaływania wychowawcze (Kulas 1998, Loeb 1975). Nowsze wyniki badań sugerują także prawdopodobne biologiczne uwarunkowania poczucia kontroli (Declerck, Boone i in. 2006; Kochanska, Murray i in. 2000). Podłożem określonego poczucia kontroli mogą być mózgowe mechanizmy odpowiedzialne za autoregulację. Kluczową rolę w procesach autoregulacyjnych odgrywają funkcje wykonawcze wpływające na skuteczność podejmowanych przez człowieka działań. Wysoka skuteczność działania (wraz z poczuciem satysfakcji, które mu towarzyszy) może sprzyjać kształtowaniu się kontroli wewnętrznej. Celem badań było ustalenie związku między sprawnością funkcji wykonawczych a poczuciem umiejscowienia kontroli u dzieci pięcioletnich. Mimo braku doniesień empirycznych dotyczących małych dzieci założono, że u pięciolatków charakteryzujących się wysoką sprawnością funkcji wykonawczych można częściej zarejestrować poczucie kontroli wewnętrznej (w porównaniu z dziećmi o niskiej sprawności funkcji wykonawczych). Wyniki potwierdziły to założenie. Sprawność funkcji wykonawczych istotnie różnicowała poczucie umiejscowienia kontroli w sytuacjach sukcesów oraz niepowodzeń u badanychdzieci. Dodatkowe analizy wykazały, że pięcioletni chłopcy charakteryzowali się większą sprawnością funkcji wykonawczych w porównaniu z dziewczynkami. Z kolei dziewczynki miały istotnie większe zewnętrzne poczucie umiejscowienia kontroli w sytuacjach sukcesów oraz niepowodzeń w porównaniu z chłopcami. Wyniki te dyskutowane są w kontekście oddziaływań socjalizacyjnych, które podejmuje się wobec chłopców i dziewczynek.
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