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EN
The article is an attempt to answer the question what role in political communication of the Catholic Church in Poland play the most important Polish Catholic opinion weekly magazines (Gość Niedzielny, Niedziela, Tygodnik Powszechny). Span of the analysis covers last 15 years. The research included the presidential campaign period in 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. The analysis was conducted with regard to the articles published during the period of one month prior to the presidential elections. The author assesses to what extent the analyzed press titles were convergent with the official announcements of the Polish Bishops' Conference regarding the political involvement of the Catholic Church. It is important to find an answer to the question of how the Catholic press supported one of the candidates for the office of President of the Republic. Another important question that needs clarification is whether and to what extent journalists discussed electoral programs of individual candidates. According to the author, the results of research regarding political engagement of Catholic press in the four presidential campaigns are a representative sample to determine the role of the analysed Catholic press in political communication of the Catholic Church in Poland.
EN
The aim of this article is to analyse Emmanuel Macron's 2017 and 2022 election campaigns. The first part of the article focuses on Macron's 2017 campaign, taking into account elements specific to election campaigns, such as election slogans, social media activity, the electoral programme, television debates, and describes the main themes of the election campaign, along with a discussion of the results of the first and second rounds of the election. An analogous analysis is then presented in relation to the 2022 election campaign. The issue of the war in Ukraine and its role for the campaign taking place at the same time is highlighted. The paper concludes by considering the differences noted in the two campaigns run by the leader of the En Marche!/ Renaissance.
EN
The main research problem of this article is whether the political message, that was addressed to voters in the presidential election from 2015, was based on the results of the evaluations or of the socio-economic researches were conducted by the research centers. The political views and slogans, which were presented by the candidates for the President of Poland during the campaign in 2015, were analyzed to answer the main research problem. The theoretical framework of the evaluation and the process of evaluation researches on the example of the managing authority of the operational program were described in the first part of this article. The European experience of utilization the evaluation results by the political class and the analysis of the presidential campaign from 2015 in reference of constructing political arguments with the results of the evaluation were presented in the second part. The author concludes that the results of the evaluation were marginally used during the campaign. The political arguments, that were used by candidates for the President of Poland, were mostly limited to recall simple figures, expert and public opinion, although in some cases the politics referenced to the results of the studies and reports. However, it is impossible to conclude if one of these studies was an evaluation research.
EN
In the article the author analyses the first direct presidential election in the Czech Republic, held in January 2013. She discusses the course and specificity of the election campaigns of two candidates who made it to the second round, namely Miloš Zeman and Karl Schwarzenberg. Drawing on selected forms of communication, most often used in communication with voters, the author examines the main topics tackled in the campaign, mechanisms used to present them as well as the results they brought. The election strategies emerging from the analysis also
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EN
Objectives: Many explanations have been offered of Donald Trump’s rise to the presidency of the United States. Most focus on the candidates and events in or around their campaigns. This paper argues that a much-neglected part of the story lies in long-developing structural and historical trends in the U.S. political economy upon which the Trump campaign capitalized. Research Design & Methods: The paper provides an historical analysis of the structural changes in American political conomy that contributed to Trump’s rise to power. Findings: Trump’s rise to power was premised on decades-long changes in the U.S. economy, race relations, ideology, party politics and Obama’s presidency. Implications/Recommendations: To understand Trump’s rise to power we need to understand the changes in American political and economic life that sowed the seeds for his election. Contribution/Value Added: Othe r accounts of Trump’s victory focus on short- or medium-term factors. This paper puts them all into longer historical perspective.
EN
The election of the head of state in Austria in 2016 was in many ways a breakthrough and its course was surprising. Norbert Hofer, a right-wing populist candidate of the Freedom Party of Austria, made it to the second round of presidential election. Technical problems related to the organisation of the presidential election postponed the final decision until December 2016. The aim of this article is to present the main elements of the populist narrative propagated by the FPÖ during the election campaign. The party reached for a well-known arsenal of means, trying to convince voters to their candidate. It underlined the protection of national identity, the defence of the interests of Austria in the European Union, declarations of strengthening the position of president and the inclusion of the people in the governing through direct democracy. The populist rhetoric recurred as well to its permanent elements: criticism of the establishment and the conspiracy theory of the Austrian elite aiming to prevent or postpone the victory of a FPÖ candidate.
EN
The aim of the article is to present the proposals of candidates running for the office of President of Ukraine in 2019. It has been shown what issues they paid closest attention to in their election programmes, how they intended to ensure national security, restore territorial integrity, fight corruption, and improve the socio-economic and political situation in Ukraine. Attention was brought to the proposals of those candidates who received at least 10% support in the election. Therefore, the election programmes of Volodymyr Zelensky, Petro Poroshenko, Yulia Tymoshenko and Yuriy Boyko were analysed.
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2016
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vol. 18
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issue 2
63-86
EN
Ukraine is the largest country that is included in European Neighborhood Policy. That is why the European Union should spotlight relations with this eastern partner, especially by foreign policy instruments like association agreement. The focus here is on the EU’s involvement in the Ukrainian crisis in period from Maidan revolution at the end of 2013, which was occasioned by the rejection of the association agreement with the EU by President Viktor Yanukovych, and to the presidential election in 2014. The main issue is to evaluate the EU’s scope to stabilize the political environment in the nearby neighborhood and eliminate threats, which are the results of war between Ukraine and Russia.
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2022
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vol. 13
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issue 44
105-119
PL
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: Analysis of how the 2020 US presidential election was covered and framed by Polish television news programs, and whether the polarization of media and politics in Poland was reflected in the studied content, influencing its bias. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The analysis of the coverage of the US presidential campaign by three nationwide TV news programs – TVN, TVP and Polsat by using content analysis with elements of framing analysis and comparative analysis. THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: The article consists of four parts: the first explains the methodology of the study, the second discusses how presidential elections are covered and framed and what influences the national media being interested in covering foreign events. The third part presents the results of the study, and the last contains the discussion and conclusions. RESEARCH RESULTS: The coverage was dichotomous and there was a correlation between the political affiliation of the media and their choice of framing. The media used a combination of game, strategy and conflict framing that highlighted differences between Trump and Biden in terms of the election results and their personal attributes. We found that the electoral rivalry was portrayed as a conflict between the candidates and that the Polish media constructed “enemy” images of candidates and voters depending on their political sympathies. CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The polarization of media and politics in Poland was reflected in the coverage of the US election. The broadcasters placed Polish political conflicts in the context of the US campaign. It shows that foreign events may be covered by national media through the prism of political bias.
EN
The author presents a constitutional regulation of the Polish model of presidential election and states of emergency and relates them to the specific situation of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Then, he analyses in detail the content of the recommendations of the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) of 26 May 2020 (Respect for Democracy, Human Rights and the Rule of Law during States of Emergency – Reflections), regarding the elections in states of emergency and its significance for the presidential election in Poland in 2020. The opinion positively evaluates all the Commission’s recommendations and considers that the existing and new exceptional Polish electoral law regulations respecting the principles of democracy and rule of law are fully complaint with them.
Res Rhetorica
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2017
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vol. 4
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issue 2
2-14
EN
This essay examines three arguments made by anti-Trump evangelical Christians in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. By explicating the arguments from character, policy, and evangelical witness, I show how this group of minority rhetors – a minority both within American evangelicalism and within the American electorate at large – used their minority status to project a prophetic warning against the Trump candidacy and in so doing developed a rhetoric that was politically potent while remaining faithful to evangelical theology and history. Paradoxically, it was by losing the election that these anti-Trump rhetors won the opportunity to articulate clearly and forcefully an evangelical political rhetoric and an implicit policy agenda.
PL
Esej analizuje trzy argumenty formułowane przez Ewangelików, którzy sprzeciwiali się kandydaturze Donalda Trumpa w wyborach prezydenckich w USA w 2016 roku. Poprzez wyjaśnienie argumentów z charakteru, polityki i świadectw ewangelicznych, autor pokazuje, jak ta grupa retorów, będąca w mniejszości zarówno w amerykańskim ewangelizmie, jak i w amerykańskim elektoracie, wykorzystywała swój status mniejszości do formułowania profetycznej przestrogi przeciwko kandydaturze Trumpa. W ten sposób rozwinęli oni retorykę silną politycznie, pozostając wiernymi ewangelickiej teologii i historii. Paradoksalnie, to dzięki przegranej w wyborach retorzy będący w opozycji do Donalda Trumpa wywalczyli okazję do zamanifestowania swojej ewangelicznej retoryki politycznej i planu politycznych działań.
EN
The election of the head of state in Austria in 2016 was in many ways a breakthrough and its course was surprising. Norbert Hofer, a right-wing populist candidate of the Freedom Party of Austria, made it to the second round of presidential election. Technical problems related to the organisation of the presidential election postponed the final decision until December 2016. The aim of this article is to present the main elements of the populist narrative propagated by the FPÖ during the election campaign. The party reached for a well-known arsenal of means, trying to convince voters to their candidate. It underlined the protection of national identity, the defence of the interests of Austria in the European Union, declarations of strengthening the position of president and the inclusion of the people in the governing through direct democracy. The populist rhetoric recurred as well to its permanent elements: criticism of the establishment and the conspiracy theory of the Austrian elite aiming to prevent or postpone the victory of a FPÖ candidate.
PL
Wybory głowy państwa w Austrii w 2016 r. były pod wieloma względami przełomowe, a ich przebieg zaskakujący. Do II tury wyborów prezydenckich przeszedł Norbert Hofer kandydat prawicowo populistycznej Wolnościowej Partii Austrii. Techniczne problemy z przeprowadzeniem wyborów prezydenckich sprawiły, że ich ostateczne rozstrzygnięcie nastąpiło dopiero w grudniu 2016 r. Celem artykułu jest ukazanie głównych elementów populistycznej narracji głoszonej przez FPÖ w okresie kampanii wyborczej. Ugrupowanie sięgnęło po dobrze znany arsenał środków, chcąc przekonać wyborców do swojego kandydata. Pojawiły się zarówno hasła ochrony tożsamości narodowej, obrony interesów Austrii w Unii Europejskiej, deklaracje wzmocnienia pozycji urzędu prezydenta oraz włączenia ludu do rządzenia poprzez formy demokracji bezpośredniej. Wykorzystany został także stały element populistycznej retoryki: krytyka establishmentu oraz teoria spisku austriackich elit, zmierzających do tego, aby uniemożliwić lub też odwlec w czasie zwycięstwo kandydata FPÖ.
EN
The article concerns the Polish regulation and practice concerning postal voting. After presenting some background information on postal voting in Poland, such as the circumstances of its introduction in 2011 and changes it has undergone since then, the author focuses on the latest amendments related to postal voting in the presidential election that were ordered for 10 May 2020. The issue has recently become extremely topical as the ruling party wanted to use postal voting for a large scale as a remedy for problems with holding the traditional election due to the COVID-19 pandemic. That idea was followed by the adoption of a specific law which, however, has aroused many controversies and great doubts about its constitutionality, mainly related to the way it was proceeded.
PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest regulacjom prawnym i praktyce związanej z głosowaniem korespondencyjnym w Polsce. Autorka krótko przedstawia genezę tej instytucji w Polsce oraz zmiany, jakim po 2011 roku instytucja ta ulegała, a następnie skupia się na regulacjach zawartych w specustawie dotyczącej przeprowadzenia wyborów prezydenckich zarządzonych na dzień 10 maja 2020 r. Problematyka wyborów korespondencyjnych jako alternatywnej metody głosowania stała się ostatnio niezwykle aktualna. Wobec problemów z przeprowadzeniem tradycyjnych wyborów z okresie pandemii COVID-19, rządzący planowali je przeprowadzić wyłącznie za pośrednictwem poczty. Konsekwencją tego było przyjęcie odpowiednich regulacji prawnych, które wzbudziły jednakże wiele kontrowersji i wątpliwości co do zgodności z Konstytucją, głównie z uwagi na sposób ich procedowania.
PL
Funkcja debat publicznych jest dziś kluczowa. Eksperci uważają, że o ostatecznym wyniku wyborów mogą zadecydować debaty prezydenckie. Liczy się tylko to, co każdy z kandydatów powie i jak się zaprezentuje. Debata publiczna jest narzędziem tworzenia wiedzy powszechnej, a więc wiedzy o wiedzy innych. Przeprowadzana zgodnie ze zrozumiałymi i przystępnymi zasadami stanowi podstawę legitymizacji działań podejmowanych w wyborach prezydenckich. Sposób organizacji debaty ma zatem fundamentalne znaczenie dla zarządzania publicznego. Ideą zarządzania publicznego jest kształtowanie warunków i upraszczanie procesów interakcji pomiędzy uczestnikami debaty publicznej. Obserwacje dyskursu publicznego mają zazwyczaj charakter dyscyplinarny, gdyż dotyczą zjawisk zachodzących w obszarze polityki, socjologii i komunikacji medialnej. Celem artykułu jest więc określenie i ocena, jakie warunki dla debaty prezydenckiej w 2020 r. zostały spełnione oraz jakie kwestie i czy zostały w niej poruszone. W artykule przyjęto następującą hipotezę: „Debata publiczna w wyborach prezydenckich w Polsce w 2020 r. nie dotyczyła spraw ważnych dla Polaków, a skupiała się jedynie na aspektach drugorzędnych, raczej nieistotnych”. W artykule sformułowano następujące pytania badawcze: jaka jest istota i zakres debaty publicznej?, jakie kwestie poruszano podczas debaty prezydenckiej 2020 w Polsce?, jak debata prezydencka przekłada się na społeczną ocenę kandydata na prezydenta? Aby osiągnąć zamierzony cel pracy wykorzystano źródła wtórne. Literaturę przedmiotu, w tym zagadnienia związane z analizą dyskursu publicznego, publikacje naukowe, raporty z badań oraz strony internetowe można zaliczyć do źródeł wtórnych. Metody, które zostaną wykorzystane do badań w artykule to: metoda badania dokumentów oraz metody opisowe. Technika badania dokumentów opiera się na badaniu istniejących już materiałów źródłowych i zwykle odbywa się w zakresie grup sformalizowanych. Zazwyczaj badania takie przeprowadza się w organizacjach lub przedsiębiorstwach, gdzie podstawą działania są akty prawne, regulaminy określające profil i sposób działania oraz dokumenty urzędowe. Technika ta znajduje szerokie zastosowanie w różnych dziedzinach ze względu na swoją wszechstronność. Tak naprawdę każdy dostępny dokument może być przedmiotem badań i przynajmniej w określonej części przedstawiać daną sytuację. Artykuł składa się z trzech części. Część pierwsza pozwala zapoznać się z tematem dyskursu publicznego w ujęciu teoretycznym. Ponadto przedstawiono tu również podstawowe elementy dyskursu publicznego między przedstawicielami elity politycznej. Część druga opisuje debatę publiczną przed pierwszą turą wyborów prezydenckich w 2020 r. w Polsce. Omówiono główne kwestie poruszane podczas debaty oraz wypowiedzi kandydatów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem wypowiedzi Andrzeja Dudy i Rafała Trzaskowskiego. Starano się również przedstawić elementy i zagadnienia, których zabrakło w debacie publicznej. Część trzecia jest częścią uzupełniającą i stanowi krótki opis debaty publicznej przed drugą turą wyborów prezydenckich w Polsce w 2020 r. Całość pracy podsumowuje zakończenie, które jest podsumowaniem wniosków, jakie zostały wyciągnięte z badań własnych oraz rozważań teoretycznych zawartych w teoretycznym podziale pracy.
EN
The function of public debates is crucial these days. Experts believe that presidential debates may decide the final election results. All that matters is what each candidate will say and the way in which they will present themselves. Public debate is a tool for creating common knowledge, thus knowledge about the knowledge of others. Performed in accordance with understandable and accessible rules, it is the foundation for legitimizing actions taken in presidential elections. The method of organizing the debate has therefore fundamental value for public management. Shaping the conditions and simplifying the interaction processes between participants of the public debate is the idea of public management. Observations on public discourse are usually disciplinary in nature, as they relate to phenomena occurring in the field of politics, sociology and media communication2. The aim of the paper is therefore to define and assess what conditions for the presidential debate in 2020 have been met and what issues and whether they were rightly raised in it. The following hypothesis was adopted for the paper: „The public debate in the 2020 presidential elections in Poland did not concern important issues for Poles, but focused only on secondary, rather unimportant aspects”. The paper formulated the following research questions: what is the essence and scope of a public debate?, what issues were touched upon during the 2020 presidential debate in Poland?, how does the presidential debate translate into society’s evaluation of a presidential candidate? Secondary sources were used in order to achieve the expressed aim of the paper, The literature on the subject, including issues related to the analysis of public discourse, scientific publications, research reports and websites can be classified as secondary sources. The methods that will be used for research in the paper will be: a method of examining documents and descriptive methods. The technique of examining documents is based on examining the already existing source materials and usually takes place in the field of formalized groups. Typically, such research is carried out in organizations or enterprises, where the foundation of operation are legal acts, regulations defining the profile and method of activity, and official documents. Such a technique finds wide application in various fields due to its versatile nature. In fact, every available document can be the subject of research and, at least in a specific part, present a given situation. The paper consists of three parts. The first allows getting acquainted with the topic of public discourse in theoretical terms. In addition, the basic elements of public discourse between representatives of the political elite are also presented here. The second part describes the public debate before the first round of presidential elections in 2020 in Poland. The main issues discussed during the debate and the candidates’ statements were described, with particular emphasis on the responses of Andrzej Duda and Rafał Trzaskowski. Efforts were also made to present elements and issues that were missing from the public debate. The third part is a complementary part and is a short description of the public debate before the second round of the 2020 presidential elections in Poland. The ending summarizes the whole work, which is a summary of conclusions that have been drawn from own research and theoretical considerations included in the theoretical division of the work.
EN
The article presents the method the presidential elections in Belarus in the period 1994–2010 were shown in Poland’s most circulated newspapers „Gazeta Wyborcza” and „Rzeczpospolita”. The articles review gives a picture of the newspapers’ means of influence on the public opinion in Poland. All of the above-mentioned elections, except the first one in 1994, have been described with clearly negative attitude to the policy of Alexander Lukashenko. On the other hand, both of the newspapers supported the opposition. That can be proved by the fact of interviews with its representatives in the numerous issues.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł przedstawia, w jaki sposób na łamach dwóch największych dzienników w Polsce, „Gazety Wyborczej” i „Rzeczpospolitej”, opisywane były wybory prezydenckie na Białorusi w latach 1994–2010. Przegląd artykułów prasowych daje nam obraz, w jaki sposób obie redakcje  kształtowały opinię publiczną w Polsce. Pomijając relacje z pierwszych wyborów prezydenta Białorusi, wszystkie kolejne były wyraźnie negatywnie nastawione do polityki Aleksandra Łukaszenki. Redakcje obu gazet pozytywnie odnosiły się do działalności opozycji, wyrazem tego były między innymi liczne wywiady z jej przedstawicielami.
RU
Данная статья демонстрирует, как две крупнейшие польские ежедневные газеты („Газета Выборча” и „Речь Посполита”) описывали президентские выборы в Беларуси в 1994–2010 гг. Обзор газетных статей позволяет понять, как две редакции формировали общественное мнение в Польше. За исключением статей о первых выборах в Беларуси, все остальные крайне негативно оценивают политику Александра Лукашенко. Редакции обеих газет положительно характеризуют деятельность оппозиции, свидетельством чего могут служить многочисленные интервью с ее представителями.
PL
W ostatnich latach Armenia i Gruzja dokonały reform konstytucyjnych przynoszących radykalną zmianę systemu politycznego i przejście ku parlamentarnemu modelowi rządów. W celu trwałej demokratyzacji obu państw osłabiona została rola prezydentów w systemach politycznych i wprowadzono ich wybór w sposób pośredni. W poniższym tekście omówiono główne elementy prawa wyborczego na urząd prezydenta w obu państwach, wskazując najbardziej istotne podobieństwa i różnice. W Armenii prezydenta wybiera parlament, a w Gruzji – specjalne ciało wyborcze. Badanie prowadzi do konkluzji, że reformy konstytucyjne w obu państwach mają na celu zapobieżenie kryzysom władzy powodowanym jej nadmierną koncentracją w rękach prezydentów, lecz jednocześnie nie dają gwarancji rzeczywistej demokratyzacji i trwałości rządów. Efekty reform mogą być zgoła odmienne – w Armenii prezydentem może być osoba w pełni podległa głównym partiom politycznym, zaś w Gruzji wprowadzenie wyborów pośrednich może obniżyć zależność prezydenta od głównych partii politycznych i zwiększyć jego polityczną samodzielność.
EN
In recent years, Armenia and Georgia have carried out constitutional reforms bringing about a radical change in their respective political systems with a shift to a parliamentary model of government. To permanently democratize both countries, the role of presidents in political systems was weakened and their election was introduced indirectly. The paper discusses the main elements of presidential electoral law in both countries with their main similarities and differences. In Armenia, the president is elected by the parliament, while in Georgia by a special electoral body. The following paper argues that the constitutional reforms in both countries are intended to prevent crises of power caused by an excessive concentration of power in the hands of presidents, although the reforms do not provide a guarantee of genuine democratisation and authoritarstability of governments. The possible outcomes of the reforms can be different: in Armenia – the increase of the dependence of the president on the main political parties, in Georgia – strengthening his independence.
EN
„Americanisation” in political campaign assumes on the one hand that all changes, techniques and campaign tools were directly taken from the United States. On the other hand, it also refl ects general developments in political policy, media and society (modernization). The main objective of this article is to examine these trends by using the example of new democracy – the Slovak Republic? The paper therefore identifi es the main characteristics of the process, but also to set an adequate methodological framework and try to explore it in the Slovak environment, specifi cally in the context of the presidential elections of 2009 and 2014.
PL
Procesy amerykanizacji w komunikowaniu politycznym oznaczają z jednej strony przejmowanie technik i narzędzi, które są wykorzystywane w kampaniach wyborczych w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Z drugiej – odzwierciedlają ogólne zmiany w strategii politycznej, mediach i społeczeństwie (modernizacja). Głównym celem artykułu jest zbadanie tych trendów w oparciu o przykład młodej demokracji – Republiki Słowacji. W tym kontekście artykuł identyfi kuje główne cechy procesów amerykanizacji w oparciu o zdefi niowane ramy metodologiczne. Badania były prowadzone w kontekście wyborów prezydenckich na Słowacji w 2009 i 2014 roku.
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Content available remote

Sté výročí vzniku první československé ústavy

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EN
The first part of this article compares the 1920 Czechoslovak constitution to the constitutions of Republic of Austria and the German Weimar Republic. The second part deals with the views president Masaryk held in constitutional matters. The third part offers a detailed analysis of the first Czechoslovak Constitution. Constitutional differences between states are caused by different history, tradition and political culture. Direct presidential election which the Constitution of Weimar Republic provided for caused the weakening of the role of the Parliament. Contrary to that the presidential status in the 1920 Czechoslovak constitution did not endanger the position of the Parliament despite the fact the president had the right of suspensive veto as in the American presidential system which would enable him to make major decision without the consent of the parliament. On contrary to other new states in Central Europe, which had an unstable multi-party system, the Czechoslovakia succeeded in building a stable multi-party system. The establishment of local governments reflected the complex nationality structure and in particular the disloyalty of certain minorities to the Republic. The result was a rather decentralized public administrative, based on the French model rather than on the idea of self-government. Two thirds of the local representatives were elected.
CS
Text ke stému výročí schválení československé ústavy. Rozdíly v ústavách jednotlivých států souvisejí s tradicemi a politickou kulturou společností. Tak tomu bylo ve třech zemích střední Evropy. Přímá volba prezidenta v německé ústavě vyjadřovala tendenci k zeslabení moci parlamentu. Prezidentova pozice v ČSR neohrožovala absolutním a suspenzivním vetem funkce parlamentu. Tím se ČSR jevilo jako pozoruhodná výjimka. Rakouská ústava byla věnována převážně výstavbě spolku. Tzv. listina svobod byla v československé ústavě vysoce hodnocena. Československá ústava plně odpovídala mírové smlouvě saintgermainské. Přesto bylo Československu vytýkáno, že nesplnilo slib švýcarizace. Prezident Masaryk i další politikové soudili, že „dobrá ústava musí být doplněná dobrou politikou“. Hned při projednávání ústavy bylo dohodnuto, aby žádné ustanovení neproklamovalo nový stát jako stát nacionální.
EN
The Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997 is one of the latest (apart from Albanian and Hungarian) constitutional acts adopted after the transformation of the 1990s. Its external inspirations were not uniform. As concerns the arrangement of regulations, it is modelled on the constitutions of: Italy of 1948, Greece of 1975, Portugal of 1976 and Spain of 1978. These solutions were also followed by the legislatures in other countries of the region. The following standard of arrangement was developed: general principles — freedoms and rights of the individual — central organs of the state — public fi nances — extraordinary measures — amending the constitution — transitional regulations. The regulations of individual freedom and rights were based (with some modifi cations) on the standards established in the Universal Declaration of Human and Civil Rights of December 1948 and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950. The constitutional legislator could also draw on the case law of the Commission on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. Varied are the inspirations for adoption of the system of government. Given the party disintegration and the precariousness of preferences, it was imperative to stabilize the system. Regarding the election of the president of the Republic, the constitutional legislator copied the approach used in the Fifth Republic of France (after the 1962 amendment), that is the procedure of universal and direct elections, with extended term and exclusion of accountability to parliament. The solutions taken after the German Basic Law of 1949, such as (1) the parliamentary responsibility of the government limited to the collective one, (2) constructive vote of no confidence in place of an ordinary vote of no confi dence, (3) strong position of the head of government, contributed to ensuring the government stability. Some regulations deserve further consideration: the demarcation of roles in the dualistic executive, the dissonance between imposing performance targets on ministers by the prime minister and their individual responsibility, the defi nition of the Senate’s function and composition. The institution of revision of the constitution, known in Polish tradition, and not present in the Constitution of 1997, also deserves consideration.
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