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EN
Introduction. Environmental conditions have been changing over the years and the body’s capacity to adapt affects human development, its growth and typogenesis. Aim. To confirm the secular trend in the population of children and adolescents aged 4 to 18 from Rzeszów in the last 35 years in terms of growing and differentiation body proportions. Materials and methods. In 2013/2014, a total of 1,563 children from Rzeszów were examined. The length of the trunk, the upper limb, the lower limb, the width of the shoulders and the width of the hips were measured and the following indices were calculated: trunk length, upper limb length, lower limb length, inter-limb, hip-shoulder and shoulder width. The data was subjected to statistical analysis and compared to the data collected in 1978/79, 1993/1994 and 2003/2004. Results. During the 35-year period, the following symptoms were observed: elongation of upper and lower limbs in both sexes, increase in shoulder width in boys from 15-18 years of age, and in girls generally in the entire examined age, tendency to decrease in hip width in both sexes in most age classes. Conclusions. The secular trend in the population of children and adolescents aged 4 to 18 from Rzeszów in the last 35 years regarding growth process and differentiating body proportions was confirmed.
Ethics in Progress
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2014
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vol. 5
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issue 2
37-56
EN
Submitted article presents a variety of the concept of measure in the early Greek investigations of nature, development of ethical and political structures, fundamental norms of the arts and crafts, and conclusively, searches for understanding of the ἄνθρωπος μέτρον challenge. Among the crucial notions of the early Greek investigations, measure was one of the most receptive: from speculative inquiries to ethical considerations, from theoretical constructions to methodological directives, from normative arrangements to technical solutions. The thinkers and sages introduced the concept of measure into the normative reflection of the ethics and politics, enclosing the most essential and fundamental prescriptions for noble, virtuous and favourable life. Furthermore, the concepts of measure combined the cosmological order with the mathematical proportion, logical principles of recognition with the methodological arrangements for the truth approximation.
EN
The aim of the paper is to point out certain analogies between de Saussure’s theoretical reflection on the ontic properties of expressions and the corresponding old Chinese and Indian concepts. Following a review of de Saussure’s ideas, the author proceeds to present their Eastern analogues. The main focus is turned to the fact that the Chinese Moists as well as the Indian grammarians and philosophers elicited proportion as the key to the understanding of the mechanism of language. The Sanscrit grammarians, the philosophers of Mīmāṃsa as well as, most probably, Gongsun Long in China saw clearly the invariant and non-material nature of expressions. The Buddhist logicians and the Moists also pointed to the oppositional character of expressions as constitutive for language.
EN
The author presents an argument in favour of Durkheimian – Saussurian theory of „social fact” as applied to language. The argument consists in pointing out two examples of morphological facts of Polish that are not easily accessible to native speakers and have not been explicitly verbalized, but are nonetheless invariably and rigorously implemented by all of them in their linguistic practice. This shows that the regularities are superimposed on them in a strongly anti-individualistic way. The first fact can be illustrated with the sequence walka ze zorganizowaną przestępczością ‘struggle of its being followed by the adjacent segment beginning in z + V (rather than by a cluster of consonants beginning in a frontal fricative). Polish has created an analogon of the necessary separation of the prepositions z and w from their right-hand syllabic homophonic partner in the adjacent context. The nature of the analogon can be described in the following way: we have to do with strict functional proportional separability of the right-hand non-syllabic homophonic partner of the preposition, on the one hand, and the rest of the expression the partner belongs to. Here is an example of such a proportion: zorganizowany : organizowany :: zoperowany : operowany. The second fact can be illustrated with the present tense form dozbierywuje (vs. * dozbieruje) of the verb dozbierywać. This shape manifests a strict parallelism with regard to the imperfective forms in -liwać, -liwuje, vs. * -luje, cf. rozstrzelać – rozstrzeliwać – rozstrzeliwuje. Both main spirants, [l] and [r], go here hand in hand. However, there is an additional regularity in play. The point is that the shape -r-ywuje depends on the presence of the preceding sequence which contains a root vowel, cf. przeorać – przeorywać – przeorywuje (here, the vowel is [o]). If this condition is not met, the final -uje does not appear; instead, next to -r-yw- regular endings of the main conjugation of verbs in -ać are used; thus, we have -a in the 3rd person sg, -am in the 1st person sg, and so on, cf.: przegrać – przegrywać – przegrywa – przegrywam.
EN
The input tax shapes the amount of payable tax in VAT. On January 1, 2016 the provisions of the amending Act introducing the so-called pre proportion will enter into force. The realization of the right to deduct input tax connected with mixed-business (taxed VAT and untaxed VAT) is going to be even more complicated when the taxpayers purchase goods or services connected with the third type of business – generally taxed VAT but exempt from VAT. The use of pre proportional deduction does not exclude the use of proportional deduction associated with the so-called sales structure. These considerations are an attempt to assess the introduced solutions in the context of rationalization mechanism of VAT, which is nearly half of the revenues to the state budget.
PL
Podatek naliczony ostatecznie kształtuje wysokość zobowiązania podatkowego w podatku od towarów i usług. Dnia 1 stycznia 2016 r. wchodzą w życie przepisy ustawy zmieniającej wprowadzające tzw. preproporcję. Realizacja prawa do odliczenia podatku naliczonego, służącego tzw. działalności mieszanej (opodatkowanej VAT i nieopodatkowanej VAT), komplikuje się tym bardziej, gdy dokonany zakup towaru bądź usługi związany będzie z trzecim typem działalności – podlegającej opodatkowaniu podatkiem od towarów i usług, ale korzystającej ze zwolnienia od podatku. Zastosowanie preproporcji nie wyłącza bowiem stosowania proporcjonalnego odliczenia podatku od towarów i usług opartego o tzw. strukturę sprzedaży. Niniejsze rozważania stanowią próbę oceny wprowadzanych rozwiązań w kontekście racjonalizacji mechanizmu podatku od towarów i usług, stanowiącego blisko połowę wpływów do budżetu państwa.
EN
In this paper, the author has undertaken an attempt to adjust Chaïm Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca’s conception of analogy to the province of law. He thus sketches out a pertinent scheme of legal analogy based upon the similarity of proportions and indulges in a consideration of the merits and demerits of such a proposition. To this aim, as the proportions that are compared in such an account of analogy, the relations between the facts of the cases and their legal outcomes were chosen: one such outcome already known and one tentatively posited. Finally, however, the author’s analyses lead to the conclusion that despite its considerable theoretical attractiveness and some mystical charm, legal analogy consisting of the comparison of two proportions is either quite similar to orthodox approaches to analogical reasoning in law or too obscure for one to employ it credibly in the legal setting. In consequence, until its proponents have elucidated the workings of proportional analogy in more detail, the potential use of such a form of analogy in the province of law does not seem promising and cannot be recommended.
EN
Apart for the concise presentation of the rule-based model of binding judicial precedent, this article describes two basic accounts of analogical reasoning in precedential law. The first account has been named: the factual model and the second: the rational model. This terminology was adopted due to the fact that judgment of similarity within the factual model is deemed to be a direct result of the very facts of the cases being compared, or of the unfathomed mystical workings of human intuition (emotions) or the outcome desired for the case at hand. The rational model, in turn, is based upon the notion of precedential reasons and casual facts, which are the facts that are relevant in the light of such reasons. Dependence upon these two notions makes the rational model more predictable and explicable. In certain circumstances, however, analogy to proceeds needs therein some additional factors which do not stem from the gist of that model. The factual model, unpredictable though it may seem to be, is faster and apt to provide us with just, or socially desirable, conclusions, especially when utilized by a person of a great legal knowledge and experience. Two other possible accounts of analogical reasoning in precedential law, i.e. the principle-based model and the proportional model, have been rebutted. The reason is: lack of analogical pattern of thinking involved and serious difficulties in its forensic application respectively.
PL
Oprócz zwięzłego przedstawienia modelu precedensu z reguł w artykule zostały opisane dwa podstawowe ujęcia (modele, koncepcje) rozumowania per analogiam w prawie precedensowym. Pierwsze z nich zostało nazwane faktualnym, a drugie racjonalnym. Terminologia ta jest podyktowana tym, że w ramach modelu faktualnego do ustalenia istotnego podobieństwa między porównywanymi stanami faktycznymi dochodzi za pośrednictwem, nie do końca dostępnej dla ludzkiego poznania, intuicji tudzież emocji albo rezultatu, jaki – z jakichś innych przyczyn – pożądany jest w danym przypadku. Natomiast zgodnie z założeniami modelu racjonalnego podobieństwo to jest stwierdzane poprzez odwołanie się do pojęcia „precedensowych racji” oraz „faktów sprawczych” sprawy precedensowej i odpowiedników tych faktów w sprawie, której skutki prawne chcemy poprzez sięgnięcie do rozumowania z analogii dopiero określić. W efekcie sposób stawiania ostatecznych konkluzji jest w tym ujęciu prawniczej analogii bardziej przejrzysty i przewidywalny. Drugie natomiast, faktualne ujęcie takiej analogii, poza tym, że pozostaje bardziej tajemnicze („mistyczne”), zdaje się w większym stopniu umożliwiać sędziom wydawanie sprawiedliwych, w ich mniemaniu lub w mniemaniu społeczeństwa, rozstrzygnięć, zwłaszcza gdy ten, kto stawia wnioski per analogiam, jest osobą odznaczającą się dużą wiedzą prawniczą i doświadczeniem życiowym. Oprócz modelu faktualnego i racjonalnego w artykule została przedstawiona również koncepcja, która sprowadza rozumowanie z analogii do proporcji (A:B jest jak C:D), oraz takie ujęcie wnioskowania a simile, w którym o wystąpieniu istotnego podobieństwa przesądza nie podobieństwo między faktami porównywanych spraw, lecz sama możliwość objęcia tych faktów jakaś ogólną zasadą (regułą).
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