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EN
Cross-linguistic research on emotion shows that there are similarities and differences in the conceptualization of emotions in different cultures. Using the prototype approach, we explored emotion categorization in Moroccan Arabic (MA) and compared it to American English (AE). Two studies were conducted. The first study reveals that there are 131 prototypical emotion categories in MA. The second study investigates how these emotions are categorized according to native speakers’ judgement. The results of this study show that in both varieties there are six basic level emotion categories: love, surprise, and happiness within the positive superordinate category; and anger, fear, and sadness within the negative superordinate category. In the MA study, however, there were two additional categories: shame and hatred. The differences between the two varieties exist at the level of subcategories which includes culture-specific emotions in each variety. As a recommendation for further research, we suggested investigating the lexical equivalence of emotions between English and MA and explore the reasons behind this lexical anisomorphism.
PL
The article introduces a contribution into the theoretical reflections presented in a series of publications on the names of colours in the poetical output and prose writing of different authors. The author examines the semantic field of the colour that most frequently appears in the novel, its exemplifications in the text and the functions it performs. The article identifies not only hypernyms of the colour red but also non-basic names and hyponyms that refer to the prototypical exemplars of fire and blood. In total, the author analysed 43 primary and secondary names for the colour red exemplified mainly by adjectives and verbs. The collected names of the colour have been assigned to two main thematic circles, i.e. nature (atmospheric phenomena, ocean and its inhabitants) and human being (body, clothes).
EN
In this article I attempt to highlight and briefly analyze some problematic aspects of the theory of prototypes and its implications in moral thought. I focus on the issue of moral judgement and the impact of prototypicality on our understanding of moral concepts. The objective of the article is to indicate the significance of the new perspectives opened by the notion of prototype, but also to point out certain difficulties. Some of the problematic questions emerge from the very existence of the prototype structure of categories and concepts; other problems arise with reference to the proposed implications or postulates which are connected with the acknowledgement of the significance of prototypicality. Due to the recognition of the practical dimension of ethics, the main issues are presented through examples of concepts which are commonly used in everyday life, ­referring to political and social values, traits of character and emotions.
EN
The aim of the present article is to analyse the metalinguistic function of the nominal reduplication in Spanish. The lexical reduplication is a mechanism that consists in repeating a lexical unit within one phrase. The study shows that the nominal reduplication presents metalinguistic functions that reveal the interest of the speakers in a number of semantic issues related to the linguistic categorization and the concept of prototype. What is more, the metalinguistic aspect of the reduplicative constructions play a crucial role in a variety of situations as it entails some intersubjective meanings that are of a great importance for the interaction.
EN
In this article I attempt to highlight and briefly analyze some problematic aspects of the theory of prototypes and its implications in moral thought. I focus on the issue of moral judgement and the impact of prototypicality on our understanding of moral concepts. The objective of the article is to indicate the significance of the new perspectives opened by the notion of prototype, but also to point out certain difficulties. Some of the problematic questions emerge from the very existence of the prototype structure of categories and concepts; other problems arise with reference to the proposed implications or postulates which are connected with the acknowledgement of the significance of prototypicality. Due to the recognition of the practical dimension of ethics, the main issues are presented through examples of concepts which are commonly used in everyday life, referring to political and social values, traits of character and emotions.
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Indywidualizm jako pojęcie

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EN
The article discusses the concept of individualism, referring to the subjectivity of human functioning, issues connected with their identity as well as a manner of thinking and behaving, characterised by otherness and distance from the actions of the community. First of all, the article presents how the concept of individualism is currently expressed in Polish language. Words and linguistic structures which are chosen by a contemporary language user in order to verbalise this concept are included within such semantic categories as: thinking, action, freedom, self-fulfilment, social contacts, and distinguishing oneself from other people. The core of this concept is constituted by the following words: individualism and individualist, which are the lexemes that represent individualism in a prototypical manner. The synonymous words relating to individualism and being at its centre are: individualisation, one's own, unique way of being. Other linguistic elements, which include the same meanings, to a greater or lesser degree, and create the centre of this concept, are: my self, an individual oneself and being oneself. The article also covers the issue concerning the extent to which a human being could have exercised the right to shape one's own destiny in the course of the history of humankind. The study also emphasises that individualism means fostering one’s belief in the uniqueness of one's own way of thinking and the resulting actions, without diminishing the importance of the way other people think and act. Individualism understood properly is the expression of the belief that it is worthwhile to devote one's life to something great, noble and it is conceptualised by the language users with a variety of evaluative terms such as: a real human being, an outstanding individual, a hero, as well as a personality and an outstanding personality. Literary works, music, paintings are the perfect expression of true human individuality, while a great artist is often described as a creative individual by the language users. False individualism is the result of egocentrism and leads to the alienation of an individual, with negative consequences both for a single human and the society.
PL
Omówione w artykule pojęcie indywidualizm odnosi się do podmiotowości funkcjonowania człowieka, zagadnień związanych z jego tożsamością i oznacza sposób myślenia oraz postępowania charakteryzujący się odmiennością i dystansem wobec poczynań ogółu. Zostało w nim pokazane przede wszystkim to, jak obecnie w języku polskim jest wyrażane pojęcie indywidualizm. Wyrazy i konstrukcje językowe, którymi posługuje się współczesny użytkownik języka w celu zwerbalizowania tego pojęcia, mieszczą się w obrębie takich kategorii semantycznych, jak: myślenie, działanie, wolność, samorealizacja, kontakty społeczne, odróżnianie się od innych. Rdzeń tego pojęcia stanowią wyrazy: indywidualizm, indywidualista – i są to leksemy, które reprezentują indywidualizm w sposób prototypowy. Synonimiczne określenia wyrazowe odnoszące się do indywidualizmu i będące w jego centrum to: ujednostkowienie, swój własny, oryginalny sposób istnienia. Inne elementy językowe, które mieszczą w sobie mniej lub bardziej te same sensy znaczeniowe i tworzą centrum tego pojęcia, to na przykład: moje ja, jednostka sama w sobie, bycie sobą. W artykule rozważano między innymi zagadnienie dotyczące tego, w jakim stopniu na przestrzeni dziejów istota ludzka mogła korzystać z prawa do kształtowania swojego losu. Zwrócono również uwagę na to, że indywidualizmem jest pielęgnowanie w sobie przekonania o wyjątkowości własnego sposobu myślenia i wynikającego z niego działania bez odbierania znaczenia temu, w jakim sposób myślą i działają inne osoby. Właściwie rozumiany indywidualizm jest wyrazem przekonania, że warto poświęcić swoje życie czemuś wielkiemu, szlachetnemu, i jest konceptualizowany przez użytkowników języka za pomocą różnorodnych określeń wartościujących, takich jak: prawdziwy człowiek, wybitna jednostka, bohater, a także: indywidualność czy wybitna indywidualność. Doskonałym wyrazem prawdziwego indywidualizmu człowieka są dzieła literackie, muzyczne, malarskie, a użytkownicy języka określają wielkiego artystę mianem indywidualności twórczej. Fałszywy indywidualizm jest wynikiem egocentryzmu i prowadzi do alienacji jednostki, mając negatywne konsekwencje dla pojedynczego człowieka i dla społeczeństwa.
Linguistica Pragensia
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2020
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vol. 30
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issue 2
138-155
EN
The aim of the article is to propose an analysis of French attributive absolute constructions in the paradigm of cognitive linguistics, and to show the advantage of their description as a linguistic category with a particular prototype. Based on the analysis of 2,635 occurrences of these constructions in the French corpus Frantext, the study tries to identify the factors determining the prototypical attributive absolute construction and to sketch the aspects in which the less typical structures differ from it. The main factor seems to be the presence of the inalienable possession relation between the absolute construction and the head NP and the semantics of the head NP. Other factors are the type of the determiner in the absolute construction, its (potential) adverbial function, the modification of the predicate and the syntactic function of the head NP.
FR
L’article vise à proposer une analyse des constructions absolues attributives françaises dans le cadre de la linguistique cognitive et de démontrer l’avantage de leur description comme une catégorie linguistique particulière, centrée autour d’un prototype. En s’appuyant sur l’analyse de 2 635 occurrences de ces constructions dans le corpus du français Frantext, l’étude essaie d’identifier les facteurs déterminant les cas prototypiques des constructions absolues attributives et d’esquisser des aspects par lesquels les structures moins typiques s’en éloignent. Le facteur principal identifié est la présence de la relation de possession inaliénable entre la construction absolue et le GN incident et le sémantisme du GN incident ; d’autres encore étant la nature du déterminant dans la construction absolue, la fonction circonstancielle de la construction absolue, la modification du prédicat et la fonction syntaxique du GN incident.
EN
In this paper we intend to prove the importance of cognition in the difficult and complex task of finding the right definition for a term or a collocation. The principles of categorization can be successfully applied in order to find the needed and structured information about the perceived world. They can also help finding the attributes that distinguish representatives of one category. Categorizing by using prototypes contributes to the development of individuals’ vocabulary in various fields and also in discovering the most important distinctive features in order to define object, beings or abstract notions of the perceived world. A good definition must contain not only distinctive features but also specific attributes, in order to increase its accuracy.
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EN
The author presents the analysis of the relation between the primary activities and articulation. By taking advantage of the terms connected with cognitive linguistics, one indicates the prototypical orofacial experience. They constitute the biomechanical basis of articulation. Compensational strategies, that is the primary and secondary ones are being distinguished.
EN
While at first glance the difference between fruit and vegetables appears to be clear, there are some problematic cases. One of them is the tomato, which is commonly regarded as a vegetable, although – technically speaking – it is a fruit. The aim of the present paper is to explain the controversies concerning the classification of tomatoes and other similar examples. In particular, the prototype-based approach to categorisation appears to offer a better chance of revealing the mechanisms that stand behind the issue of categorisation, than the classical approach.
EN
The article presents theoretical considerations concerning the relationship between the original text and the texts of translations with the use of the cognitive categorization model. From the perspective of the theory of prototypes, translation studies can be conducted at the general level of texts: the source and the target and at the detailed level: translation units and their translation equivalents. The structure of a category will depend on the researcher’s intuition and their decision to choose the unit in the center of the category under consideration. The aim of the paper is to propose several new categorization models, reflecting the various possibilities of building a category of translations with a central-peripheral structure at the level of the texts as a whole. This is due to the consideration of whether and in what sense the original text can be perceived as a prototype in relation to the translation text? In the center of the translation category, it is possible, for example, to place an ideal translation of the original, potential or actually existing in the host culture. The central-peripheral structure of translation category may also be useful in presenting the results of the translator’s decision-making process regarding the selection of a translation equivalent, as well as in the process of critical analysis of various translation solutions, especially in translation series, which, however, is beyond the scope of the present article.
EN
The article discusses the phenomenon of the copying of Lieux de mémoire situated in the public space of the city of Poznań on the example of the Poznań 1956 Protests Memorial. The study is focused on the problem of the production of new meanings, which are generated in relation to the monument – prototype. The context of the reception of Poznań 1956 Protests Memorial and the meaning of the initial commemoration changes depending on the form and location of copies. The article also considers the problem of consolidation of identities of social groups which occurs by reference to the symbol (memorial) of the 1956 Protests. In her research the author makes use of such concepts as Andrzej Szpociński’s “monumental memory”, Jean Baudrillard’s “simulacra and simulation” and Pierre Nora’s lieux de mémoire.
EN
The problems that have been studied to a small extent by the Belarusian linguists, among other problems abbreviations functionality. Depending on the use of acronyms can be either autonomous or structurally related. Is taken into account position in a specialized text: at the beginning of the text, according to the appearance of the abbreviation in the text at the end of the text. In the title of the text, according to the method of distribution of the opinion we have: abbreviations in the subject (as a function of the entity), abbreviations in the statement (the complement, the term). Using the lexical relationship is defined acronyms, and keywords in the structure of the text. This is possible if: replace abbreviations in the text of one of the tokens included in its full form of the name, write a different abbreviations for the same text.
PL
Badanie opisane w artykule opiera się na załoęeniu, ęe wiedza o emocjach jest zorganizowana w postaci prototypów. Przedmiotem badania o charakterze eksploracyjnym jest autoewaluacyjna samoświadomościowa emocja złoźona – wstyd. Uczestnicy badania (N = 29) zostali poproszeni o opisanie autobiograficznego wspomnienia, podczas którego doświadczali wstydu. Uzyskane od badanych narracje zostały skategoryzowane przez sędziów kompetentnych i poddane hierarchicznej analizie skupień. W rezultacie otrzymano prototypowy opis wstydu. Ponadto otrzymano wyniki dotyczące: (1) charakterystyki prototypu emocji złoźonej, (2) analizy strukturalnej prototypu wstydu, (3) „potencjalnej syntezy” w obszarze emocji postkognitywnych.
EN
This study is based on the conclusion that emotion knowledge is organized in terms of prototypes. The subject of this exploratory study is autoevaluative self-conscious emotion – shame. The participants (N = 29) were asked to describe emotional autobiographical emotional episode. Then the subjects‘ narratives were categorized by coders and submitted to hierarchical cluster analysis. The result was a prototypical description of this emotion. Derived, exploratory results provide mainly: 1) the description of complex emotion as prototype, 2) the structural characteristic of shame, 3) arbitrate the issue of „potential synthesis“ in the field of postcognitive emotions.
EN
The article focuses on the analysis of the methods of detection and research of the prototypes. The dependence of the prototype on the category selected for analysis has been proved. There are three main categories in which the perceptual feature is objectifi ed: the actual category of perceptual sign, the category of perceptual representatives, the category of the semantic field of the perceptual sign. Accordingly, the lexical, reference and semantic prototypes of the trait sign have been distinguished.
PL
Uwaga badawcza koncentruje się na metodach wykrywania i badania prototypów. Udowodniono zależność prototypu od kategorii wybranej do analizy. Istnieją trzy główne kategorie, w których cecha percepcyjna jest zobiektywizowana: rzeczywista kategoria znaku percepcyjnego, kategoria obiektów znaku percepcyjnego, kategoria pola semantycznego znaku percepcyjnego. W świetle powyższego rozróżnia się leksykalne, referencyjne i semantyczne prototypy znaku cechy percepcyjnej.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono możliwości językowe mężczyzny z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną w zakresie definiowania pór roku. Zasadniczym celem było zrekonstruowanie na podstawie wypowiedzi badanego pojęć „wiosna”, „lato”, „jesień” i „zima”, które przybrały postać definicji kognitywnej. Biorąc pod uwagę to, że rozmówca posługiwał się wiedzą zdroworozsądkową i wykorzystywał język potoczny, starałam się wykazać, że powstałe konceptualizacje zbudowane zostały zgodnie z zasadzą prototypu, stereotypu oraz kolekcji.
EN
The article presents the linguistic abilities of an intellectually disabled man in defining the seasons of the year. The principal goal was to reconstruct, on the basis of the subject’s utterances, such concepts as spring, summer, autumn and winter, which assumed the form of cognitive definition. In view of the fact that the subject used commonsense knowledge and used the colloquial language, I tried to show that the produced conceptualizations were constructed in accordance with the principle of prototype, stereotype, and collection.
RU
В статье рассматривается вопрос о функционировании категории «дом» в повести “Живой товар” Антона Чехова. Произведение относится к первому этапу творческого пути автора, поэтому в довольно сатирическом виде писатель задумывается над проблемами семейного очага. История любовного треугольника происходит на фоне трех домов – городского, дачи и поместья. В первом доме супружеская связь увядает, когда появляется любовник. На даче любовники пытаются создать свой собственный домашний очаг, однако терпят поражение. Парадоксально – в третьем доме, т.е. в поместье, муж, жена и любовник живут мирно под одной крышей. Чехов создает новый образ дома, который можно определить как периферийный элемент прототипической категории «дом». Тем самым автор находит символ изменений в жизни современных ему семей, которые нашли свое отражение в литературе того времени.
EN
The article is devoted to the way a category of ‘house’ functions in a short story ‘A Living Chattel’ by A.P. Chekhov. Since this literary work comes from the first part of Chekhov’s creative activity, the author mostly in an ironic way scrutinizes the problems of domestic hearth. There are three houses – a city house, a dacha and a country estate where the story of love triangle takes place. In the first house, the relationship between a married couple withers when the lover steps in. At the dacha, the lovers try to create their own domestic hearth but they fail. Paradoxically, in the third house being the country estate, a husband, his wife and her lover live peacefully under one roof. Chekhov creates a new vision of a house, which can be referred to as a peripheral element of a prototypical category ‘house’. Hence, the author identifies the symbol of changes which take place in the life of his contemporary families and which are reflected in the literature of those days.
PL
Celem pierwszej części artykułu jest rekonstrukcja koncepcji domu z wykorzystaniem badania ankietowego. Wyróżniono podstawowe znaczenia znaku językowego – budowanie, mieszkanie, rodzina i ojczyzna, którego znaczenie komplikuje się w związku z przytaczaniem takich skojarzeń jak bezpieczna i wąska przestrzeń, ciepło, spokój, swojskość. W procesie konceptualizacji domu istotniejszym od materialnego budowania okazuje się jego znaczenie symboliczne jako miejsca stworzonego przez rodzinę. Analiza pozwala wysnuć wniosek, że dom jest wartością niezmienną dla wielu młodych Białorusinów. W drugiej części artykułu omówiono indywidualną konceptualizację domu Andrusia Horwata w aspektach statycznym i dynamicznym.
EN
The aim of the first part of the article is to reconstruct the concept of home by means of a questionnaire. The basic conceptualizations of home include building, family and homeland. They become less straightforward by the connotations of protected, narrow, warm, quiet, private space. The symbolic value of home as a place created by a family is more important than the conceptualization of home as a building. The analysis shows that home remains crucial value for most young Belarusians. The individual conceptualization of Andrus Ghorvat in the static and dynamic aspects is discussed in the second part of the article.
PL
Set in the context of early 20 th century Malaya, W. Somerset Maugham’s (1874–1965) short story “The Force of Circumstance” (1926) concisely represents the conflicting attitudes to sex and family life among the British colonial employees. The narrative, which develops around the main hero Guy’s relationships with his English wife Doris and an unnamed Malay concubine, reflects a contrast between the attitudes to sex dominant in the official imperial ideology of that time and the practice in the colonies. The frameworks of narratology and Cognitive Poetics make it possible to read the complicated situation of the main hero as an extended metaphor of the British Empire, in which formal and informal family relations map onto the relations between Great Britain and the dependent states. Though the British imperial ideology used the concept of family to strengthen the relations between the metropole and the colonies, Maugham’s story represents the Empire as a not-so happy family – a result of circumstances rather than of mutual bond and consent.
PL
Pojęcia naturalne, którymi posługujemy się na co dzień – w odróżnieniu od pojęć naukowych – nie mają ostrych granic, dlatego też nie zawsze potrafimy jednoznacznie odróżnić desygnaty pojęć potocznych od niedesygnatów. Istotną część pojęcia naturalnego stanowi tzw. „prototyp” – czyli reprezentacja charakterystycznych cech posiadanych przez desygnaty czy egzemplarze pojęcia. Oprócz prototypu (rdzenia pojęcia lub wzorca) pojęcie naturalne obejmuje ponadto tzw. obszar dopuszczalnego niepodobieństwa do prototypu. Obszar ten może być rozumiany jako zbiór atrybutów czy wymiarów. Nie wszystkie wartości z danego wymiaru, lecz tylko pewien podzakres wartości, współtworzy ów obszar dopuszczalnego niepodobieństwa do prototypu. Egzemplarze czy desygnaty danego pojęcia są bardziej lub mniej typowymi jego przykładami, zależnie od stopnia, w jakim przypominają prototyp. W załączniku autor przedstawia strukturę prototypową uczciwości, komunizmu i nauczyciela, która jest odtworzona w wyniku zastosowania metody opisanej w artykule. Oprócz cech danego pojęcia autor dołącza także wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi badanych osób, tj. kategorie nadrzędne, definicje, synonimy i wzory osobowe.
EN
Natural concepts, the notions we use in everyday life – as opposed to academic concepts – do not have clear-cut boundaries. This is why it is not always easy to clearly distinguish the designata (referents) of colloquial concepts from non-designata. An important element of a natural concept is the so-called prototype, i.e. the representation of characteristic traits of the members of a given category. Apart from the prototype (the central member or the standard), the natural concept also covers the so-called area of accepted non-similarity to the prototype. This area may be understood as a set of attributes or dimensions. Not all of the values of a given dimension, but only a certain sub-scope of values contributes to the above-mentioned area of accepted non-similarity to the prototype. Depending on the degree to which they resemble the prototype, the examples of a given concept are seen as more or less prototypical members. In the appendix to the article, the author exemplifies the prototypical structure of the concepts of honesty [uczciwość], communism [komunizm], and teacher [nauczyciel], which is recreated as a result of the method described in the article. Apart from the characteristic traits of a given notion, the author also enumerates all of the answers provided by interviewees, i.e. the superordinate categories, definitions, synonyms, and human exemplifications of the given notions.
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