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2013
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vol. 23
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issue 2
55-65
EN
A method for the allocation of technologies of reduction of CO2 emission to sources of emissions based on dynamic programming has been described. The purpose of the application of the method was to develop an efficient strategy of allocating financial means for reducing CO2 emissions from a set of coal and lignite fired power plants (carbon dioxide sources) which enables reduction of the total emissions to the required level within a given time horizon, at the minimum cost. The application of the method is illustrated based on the set of the 20 largest Polish coal and lignite fired power plants.
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Emergence in Dynamical Systems

88%
EN
Emergence is a term used in many contexts in current science; it has become fashionable. It has a traditional usage in philosophy that started in 1875 and was expanded by J. S. Mill (earlier, under a different term) and C. D. Broad. It is this form of emergence that I am concerned with here. I distinguish it from uses like ‘computational emergence,’ which can be reduced to combinations of program steps, or its application to merely surprising new features that appear in complex combinations of parts. I will be concerned specifically with ontological emergence that has the logical properties required by Mill and Broad (though there might be some quibbling about the details of their views). I restrict myself to dynamical systems that are embodied in processes. Everything that we can interact with through sensation or action is either dynamical or can be understood in dynamical terms, so this covers all comprehensible forms of emergence in the strong (nonreducible) sense I use. I will give general dynamical conditions that underlie the logical conditions traditionally assigned to emergence in nature.The advantage of this is that, though we cannot test logical conditions directly, we can test dynamical conditions. This gives us an empirical and realistic form of emergence, contrary those who say it is a matter of perspective.
PL
The aim of this article is to interpret the conditions for, and the content of, a claim for an appropriate disability pension granted due to the reduction of prospects for success in the future (referred to as the third disability pension condition under Article 444 § 2 of the Civil Code). The chosen subject of analysis is primarily justified by the relative lack of attention this disability pension has received in legal literature compared to pensions granted due to other conditions specified in Article 444 § 2 CC. The authors focus on resolving some of the interpretative doubts in the civil law related to the phrase “reduction of the prospects for success in the future”. The derivative conception of legal interpretation serves as the foundation for their analyses. The article posits that a claim for a pension due to the reduction of prospects for success in the future is available to every natural person (including a conceived child) who has suffered a bodily injury or health disorder resulting in a loss of the ability to work (in the broad sense of the term), including the ability to perform household chores and, consequently, the material or financial benefits such work would provide. According to the authors, the provision’s apparent role is to resolve interpretative doubts regarding the pecuniary benefits that the aggrieved party would likely obtain in the future. This likelihood is higher than low or small, but lower than the probability bordering on certainty (or at least very high), which is the usual requirement for lost benefits in order to be granted a disability pension. This result of the interpretation is fully justified in both functional and systemic interpretative directives, as the legislator, to a certain extent, favours the interests of the person who suffered personal injury over those of the entity responsible for the damage.
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88%
Avant
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2018
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vol. 9
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issue 2
75-86
EN
Is there intentionality in the inner most level of the soul? Do we have experience of what is unconscious? And, supposing that such an experience might exist, is it possible to perform reduction on it? In this regard the present paper aims to investigate, from a phenomenological point of view, the process of “raising awareness” of what is unconscious, trying to understand if there is (or if there can be) a connection between this process and the methodological concept of “reduction” developed by Husserl. Particular attention is paid to the specific type of reduction called “psychological reduction,” which, according to Husserl, provides access to the pure soul, the pure field of psychological experience.
Mäetagused
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2017
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vol. 68
27-52
EN
Plosives in Estonian have been considered voiceless. However, analysis has shown that short plosives tend to get at least partially voiced and otherwise reduced in connected speech. This seems to be quite a universal tendency in different languages. The present paper investigates short plosives in intervocalic position in most frequent content words. Phonetic materials were extracted from the Phonetic Corpus of Estonian Spontaneous Speech. Patterns in the reduction of plosives and possible influences of stress and vowel context were investigated. Two kinds of allophones emerged – those that were fully realised and had a distinguishable release burst, and the reduced ones that had lost the burst phase. The amount of reduced tokens differentiated the velar plosive [k] from others. As [p] and [t] both had over 65% of fully realised tokens, but over 60% of [k] tokens were reduced. [k] also had most different allophones. Among fully realised tokens there were voiceless, partially voiced, and fully voiced allophones. The voiceless allophone was the rarest, 19% tokens of [p] and only 10% of [t] and [k] were voiceless. Most frequent allophones among phonemes were partially voiced for [p] (29%), fully voiced for [t] (37%), and reduced voiced for [k] (47%). Closure durations were related to place of articulation. [p] had the longest average durations and [t] the shortest. Across all tokens [k] and [t] had similar average durations but within allophones durations were closer between [k] and [p]. Burst durations were the longest, around 30 ms for [k] and almost the same duration, between 21–23 ms, for [p] and [t], with the exception of the voiceless allophone [t], which was 27 ms. Closure durations differed significantly between [p] and [t] and burst durations were significantly different between [k] and other phonemes. Stressed positions included both lexical and contrastive stresses. Stress had some effect on the allophonic distribution but almost none on durations. As expected, there were more voiceless and partially voiced tokens in stressed position and more reduced tokens and total loss in unstressed position. Differences were the biggest for [t] and the smallest for [k]. Durations differed very little, whereas none were statistically significant. Vowel context had some influence on allophonic distribution. The influence was the biggest on [t]. Overall, there were more fricative and approximant tokens around [i].[t] had more partially voiced tokens and less voiced tokens around labial vowels [o, u]. There were more reduced [k] tokens around [a] and [i]. On durations the vowel context again influenced [t] the most. Durations between all vowel contexts were statistically different for [t] (p<.01); the longest durations appeared after [i]. In general, the present study confirms the results of the previous ones. Allophonic distribution is very similar to the previous study of Estonian spontaneous speech. Closures were at least partially voiced in most cases which refer to carry-over voicing of the previous vowel. Vocal cord vibration stops for a very brief time or does not stop at all during short closure times. Burst durations appear to be longer in spontaneous speech than in read speech. Little influence of stress is in accordance with findings in the studies on Estonian and some other languages. Vowel influences were dependent on the place of articulation. Bilabial [p] was the least affected both in allophonic variation and in durations. Velar [k] was influenced by the vowel context but it mostly occurred in whole as extensive reduction; different vowels had more effect on the allophonic variation than in the case of [p] but durations were almost unaffected. Influences on [t] mostly occurred as significant duration differences; yet, also some differences in allophonic variation occurred.
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The  Internal Sense(s) in Early Jesuit Scholasticism

75%
EN
Against the background of the medieval theory of internal senses of Avicenna and Aquinas the author presents a survey of the theories of internal senses as advocated by the early Jesuits, namely by Francisco de Toledo (1534–1596), Manuel de Góis (1543–1597), one of the so-called Conimbricenses, and Francisco Suárez (1548–1617). Although all these Jesuits consider Aquinas’s tenet of the four really distinct interior senses to be the probable view, each of them takes a more or less reductionist stance against it. In Suárez this eliminativist approach even results in the theory of the single interior sense called phantasy. In conclusion, this Jesuit reductionism is compared to the Zeitgeist of the classical early modern philosophy exemplified by the names of Descartes and Locke.
EN
This article aims synthetically to refer to discussion between Polish academiclawyers about the controversies regarding to reduction of a specified sum in “agreed or stipulated payment for non-performance” in art. 484 § 2 of Polish Civil Code. These conclusions, resulting from the analysis of Polish private law - will be referring to the same reduction-clause in three selected acts of contracts model law: UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, the Principles of European Contract Law and the Draft Common Frame of Reference. The last part of this article contains the conclusions de lege ferenda from comparative analysis.
EN
The paper focuses on a specific substitution of full proper names with their reduced alternatives. Official proper names of institutions, buildings, places, etc. are correctly spelled with a capital letter in the intital word of the name, whereas lower-case letter is used for the unofficial alternative of the name. However, capitalization in substitute names varies. We analyze particular types of substitution, considering which types are components of the proper names and which types are common noun components.
9
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Irreducible Holism

75%
EN
This paper explores some issues concerning the relation between ontological reduction and conceptual reduction, as construed by the physicalists. More specifically, it aims at highlighting and analyzing certain general methodological and ethical implications of the physicalistic research projects. Against this background, the paper identifies a certain category of concepts as “irreducibly holistic”, that is, those with regard to which ontological and conceptual reduction are inextricably bound together. Further, the paper argues that since irreducibly holistic concepts are conceptually irreducible to the physical, they have to be ontologically irreducible to the physical as well, thus rendering physicalism false. This conclusion is reached by analyzing and then rejecting a variety of programmes aimed at accommodating irreducibly holistic concepts within a physicalist framework (including eliminativism, preservative irrealism and quasi-realism). Lastly, an ontologically pluralistic framework is proposed for the purpose of reconciling apparently conflicting insights from different areas of philosophical and scientific inquiry.
EN
Sequences of affricates followed by homorganic fricatives are simplified to affricates in preconsonantal context in Polish. Similarly, geminates are reduced in this environment, which results from the fact that length distinction is not licensed in this position. Despite common motivation, the two types of reduction cannot be handled by the same rule. Unlike geminates, sequences of affricates and fricatives cannot undergo the process of degemination. However, the simplification is motivated by the phonetic adjacency of identical fricative portions, which leads to a conclusion that the rule belongs to the domain of phonetic implementation. Therefore, an Optimality Theoretic solution is aided by the theory of Articulatory Phonology, which can capture the phonetic facts of reduction processes.
EN
The aim of this study is to identify the most important mechanisms of the dynamics of the contemporary Slovak language including substitution, multiplication and reduction and noticeable trends in the morphological and syntactic subsystems. Vocabulary tends to be the part of language reacting to social and political changes the fastest. Syntax, on the other hand, is the slowest. On the morphological level, declension of masculine nouns enjoys the highest growth rate. The changes in the discussed subsystems are all leaned towards language economization which manifests itself in simplification, unification and regularity of the forms, reducing the number of secondary forms and ellipsis.
PL
Celem szkicu jest wskazanie najważniejszych mechanizmów dynamiki współczesnego języka słowackiego, do których należą: substytucja, multiplikacja i redukcja oraz zauważalne tendencje rozwojowe w podsystemie morfologicznym i syntaktycznym. Najszybciej na zmiany społeczno- polityczne reaguje słownictwo, najwolniej składnia języka. Na poziomie morfologicznym największą dynamikę przejawia deklinacja rzeczowników rodzaju męskiego. Wspólną cechą zmian w omówionych podsystemach jest tendencja do ekonomizacji języka przejawiająca się w upraszczaniu, unifikacji i regularności form, zmniejszeniu liczby form sekundarnych oraz eliptyczność.
EN
The article examines the change of the unaccented vowel о > a in Bulgarian dialects of the Rhodope region. Attention is drawn to the changes of the unaccented vowel e, which in Eastern Slavic languages are regarded parallel to acaivismus. The article offers an analysis of cases of acaivismus in north-western Bulgarian dialects and in the dialects of Prizren in the Republic of Kosovo.
PL
Статията разглежда проявите на преход на неударената гласна о > а в българските диалекти от района на Родопите. Обръща се внимание на промените, на които се подлага неударената гласна е, които в източните славянски езици се разглеждат като успоредни с акавизма. Анализират се случаите на акавизъм в северозападните български говори и в диалектите от района на Призренско в Република Косово.
EN
In the article I deal with some paradoxes and errors caused by improper usage of logical and philosophical terms appearing in the arguments for existence of God and other philosophical issues. I point at first some paradoxes coming from improper usage of propositional calculus as an instrument for analysis of a natural language. This language is actually not using simple sentences but rather propositional functions, their logical connections, and some replacements for variables in them. We still have to deal with so called paradox of material implication. The second paragraph provides formal and metatheoretical critics of Charles Sanders Peirce’s theory of deduction, induction and abduction. I argue that what Peirce and his followers call abduction is actually deduction or some reasoning unable to describe in terms of the logic used by them. Both syllogistic and inferential theory of abduction generate some paradoxes and contradictions. In the last paragraph also some paradoxes and contradictions resulting from the theory of causation by Jan Łukasiewicz are presented. The central issue of the article is erroneous usage of the implication: in logical paraphrases of a natural language, in description of the scientific reasoning, and in description of causality. However, my objective is not to solve all problems mentioned above but rather to open a discussion over them.
Ius Novum
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2023
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vol. 17
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issue 2
88-110
EN
The aim of the article is to interpret the conditions for and the content of a claim for an appropriate disability pension granted due to the reduction of prospects for success in the future (the so-called third disability pension condition under Article 444 § 2 of the Civil Code). The choice of the subject of analysis is justified primarily by the fact that in the legal literature this disability pension has been given much less attention than pensions granted due to other conditions specified in Article 444 § 2 CC. The authors focus on solving some of the interpretative doubts emerging in the civil law in relation to the expression: “reduction of the prospects for success in the future”. To carry out the analyses, the derivative conception of interpretation is used. The article shows that a claim for a pension due to the reduction of prospects for success in the future is available to every natural person (including a conceived child) who has suffered such a kind of bodily injury or health disorder that makes them lose the ability to work (within the broad meaning of the word), including the ability to perform household chores and, consequently, the material or financial benefits that this work would bring. The role of the provision, according to the authors, seems to be to resolve interpretation related doubts with regard to the pecuniary benefits that the aggrieved party would obtain in the future with a probability higher than low, small, but lower than the probability bordering on certainty (or at least very high), which is usually required in relation to lost benefits in order to grant a disability pension. This result of the interpretation is fully justified in both systemic and functional interpretative directives.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przeprowadzenie wykładni przesłanek i treści roszczenia o odpowiednią rentę z tytułu zmniejszenia widoków powodzenia na przyszłość (tzw. trzecia przesłanka rentowa z art. 444 § 2 k.c.). W literaturze prawniczej rencie tej poświęcono zdecydowanie mniej uwagi niż rentom z pozostałych tytułów określonych w art. 444 § 2 k.c. W artykule koncentrujemy się nad rozwiązaniem niektórych z rysujących się w cywilistyce wątpliwości interpretacyjnych związanych z wyrażeniem „zmniejszenie widoków powodzenia na przyszłość”. Do przeprowadzenia rozważań wykorzystano derywacyjną koncepcję wykładni. W artykule wykazano, że roszczenie o rentę z tytułu zmniejszenia widoków powodzenia na przyszłość przysługuje każdej osobie fizycznej (w tym dziecku poczętemu), która doznała takiego rodzaju uszkodzeń ciała lub rozstroju zdrowia, że traci możliwość wykonywania szeroko rozumianej pracy, w tym pracy w gospodarstwie domowym, a w konsekwencji – traci korzyści materialne czy majątkowe, które ta praca by przyniosła. Rolą rozważanego w pracy fragmentu przepisu wydaje się rozstrzygnięcie wątpliwości interpretacyjnych w odniesieniu do możliwości indemnizacji korzyści majątkowych, które poszkodowany uzyskałby w przyszłości z prawdopodobieństwem wyższym niż niskie, małe, niewielkie czy nieduże, lecz mniejszym niż prawdopodobieństwo graniczące z pewnością (a przynajmniej bardzo wysokie), którego wymaga się zwykle w odniesieniu do utraconych korzyści przy rencie z tytułu utraty zdolności do pracy zarobkowej. Ten wynik wykładni znajduje pełne uzasadnienie zarówno w systemowych, jak i funkcjonalnych dyrektywach interpretacyjnych.
EN
The article is an attempt at establishing a theoretical basis for a dialogue between phenomenology and contemporary philosophy, with regard to the problem of internalism-externalism. It is argued, according to Roman Ingarden, that one has to first of all put forward an adequate question about the problem, to be able to understand it appropriately. Moreover, the analysis is limited to the two forms of the internalism-externalism debate, namely semantics and the philosophy of the mind. Within Husserl’s phenomenology one can easily point to basic intuitions that justify thesis that this philosophy refers to the internalism-externalism problem. Ultimately, by using phenomenological terminology, the article arrives at questions about possible internalism-or-externalism within Husserl’s phenomenological project. The questions, however, suggest that phenomenology can be neither clearly nor completely classified either as internalism or as externalism.
EN
In the present study I analyzed some aspects of the program of logical empiricism. I devoted particular attention to issues such as demarcation criterion, protocol sentence or logical syntax. These issues have been considered mainly through the prism of the work of Rudolf Carnap, while the contribution of other representatives of the Vienna Circle was rather kind of argumentative background. Mentioned philosophical trend had to stand in the closest possible touch with science. Therefore, fundamentally discredited metaphysical issues as meaningless. According to the author, such a radical distinction between sense and nonsense is unauthorized. Key neo-positivist postulates themselves are based on certain metaphysical assumptions.
EN
This is the second of a two-part study treating Karol Wojtyła’s Aristotelian methodology. Having presented Aristotle’s method of induction (ἐπαγωγή/epagoge) and analysis (ἀνάλῠσις/analusis) or division (διαίρεσις/diairesis) in Part I, Part II discloses the logical form and force of Wojtyła’s method of induction and reduction as Aristotelian induction and division. Looking primarily to the introduction to The Acting Person, it is shown that Wojtyła utilizes the logical forms of reductio ad impossibile and reasoning on the hypothesis of the end, or effect-cause reasoning, which is special to the life sciences and the power-object model of definition as set down by Aristotle. By use of this Aristotelian methodology, Wojtyła obtains definitive knowledge of the human person that is necessary and undeniable: he discloses the εἶδος (eidos) or species of the person in the Aristotelian, Thomistic, and Phenomenological sense of the term.
EN
This is the first of a two-part study treating Karol Wojtyła’s Aristotelian methodology. The study shows that Wojtyła’s inductive and reductive methodology is identical with the Aristotelian method of proceeding from what is better-known to us in experience (ἐμπειρία/empeiria) to what is better-known to nature by way of induction (ἐπαγωγή/epagoge) and analysis (ἀνάλῠσις/analusis) or division (διαίρεσις/diairesis). By a rigorous presentation of this Aristotelian methodology here in Part I, the logical form and force of Wojtyła’s method is properly disclosed and appreciated in Part II. Wojtyła’s method utilizes the logical forms of reductio ad impossibile and reasoning on the hypothesis of the end, or effect-cause reasoning, which is special to the life sciences and the power-object model of definition. By this methodology, Wojtyła obtains definitive knowledge of the human person that is necessary and undeniable: he discloses the εἶδος (eidos) or species of the person in the Aristotelian, Thomistic, and Phenomenological sense of the term.
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2017
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vol. 20
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issue 1
57-71
PL
Współcześnie jesteśmy świadkami nowej formy ingerencji w istotę ludzką. Chodzi o celowe dążenie do przekształcenia natury ludzkiej, w wyniku czego stanie się ona narzędziem, materiałem do przetwarzania, podobnym do tych, które służą człowiekowi w świecie przyrody. Ta nowa forma ingerencji w ludzkie życie wykracza jednak poza humanistyczne sposoby i cele doskonalenia człowieka. Homo perfectus stanowi transhumanistyczną perspektywę, która – dążąc do doskonalenia człowieka – kładzie nacisk na doskonalenie ciała ludzkiego, jego możliwości czy zdolności poznawczych. Jednocześnie zapomina się o charakterystycznym dla człowieka twórczym działaniu. W konsekwencji, perspektywa ta rezygnuje z wielopłaszczyznowości (wielowarstwowości) ludzkiego bytu, jak i jego finalności. Koncepcja homo perfectus tworzy pesymistyczny obraz człowieka oraz odrzuca właściwe dla człowieka biologczne ograniczenia, poszukując coraz doskonalszych metod kontroli nad jego życiem. Jednak nie jest ona sposobem doskonalenia natury ludzkiej, jej pełnej realizacji, ale raczej przejawem walki przeciwko temu, co było człowiekowi dane. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu przedstawienie wielu sprzeczności związanych z terminem homo perfectus, jak również przybliżenie znaczenia koncepcji educatio w odniesieniu do bytu ludzkiego. Wychowanie jest niezbędnym warunkiem istnienia człowieka, bez wychowania człowiek nie jest w stanie osiągnąć wolności. Wychowanie jest nie tylko przygotowywaniem się do pełnienia istotnych ról odgrywanych przez człowieka, ono wyprowadza człowieka z jego niekompletności, zamknięcia się w sferze osobistych ograniczonych interesów, i prowadzi w kierunku przestrzeni otwierającej się na prawdziwie ludzkie horyzonty, uwalnia od tego, co jest cząstkowe, ku temu, co jest całościowe, pełne.
EN
A new form of intervention into what it means to be human is currently emerging. It is an effort to purposely transform the very nature of man, which at once becomes some kind of a material to be worked on, the same as other components of nature are for man. This new emerging form of intervention into human existence extends beyond the humanistic ways and aims at the cultivation of man. Homo perfectus is a transhumanist perspective which calls for perfecting man, while stressing the enhancement of the human body and its performance, or his cognitive capacities. At the same time, the human characteristic of creative action is being marginalized. As a result, such a perspective neglects not only the dimensionality of man, but also his finality. The concept of the homo perfectus creates a pessimistic image of man and rejects man’s intrinsic, biologically limited humanness in expectation of gaining greater control over our lives. The image is not an image of the enhancement of human nature and his full realization, but it is rather an image of a battle against what was once given to man. In this paper, I will present the contradiction that arises in connection to the concept of homo perfectus and point out the significance of the concept of educatio in connection to human existence. Education becomes a prerequisite of human existence; without education, man would not be able to gain his freedom. Education is not only a preparation for certain life performances but it also guides us out of every partialness, every isolation in the sphere of personal limited interests into a space that can be open towards one and only human direction, that is a direction from the partial to the whole.
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