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EN
For the last few years, a slow process of a specific “cooling down” of religious and Church commitment has been taking place in Poland. In this article we assume that religiosity with institutional protection still plays an important role in the Church landscape of Polish society and the sphere of public life. In Poland, a positive attitude vis‑à‑vis the Catholic Church is an important determinant of one’s religiosity. Individuals who do not have confidence in the Church, and who evaluate it negatively as an institution, tend to participate less in religious practices, and their faith seems to be weakening. Religiosity and commitment to the Catholic Church in Poland are very closely related to each other. There are no major discrepancies in the opinion as to the extent of the secularization of society among Polish sociologists, but there are differences in the assessment and understanding in terms of the social role of the Church. Discussions on the position and role of the Catholic Church in society still go on, and we are far from a conclusive diagnosis, especially regarding our understanding and acceptance of a “model Church” that should function in a democratic and pluralistic society. The final answers remain in the realm of hypotheses and assumptions. The majority of Poles are convinced about the Church’s influence in various spheres of public life, including the political sphere. This view is predominant among almost two thirds of adult Poles, but also among the youth (even to a somewhat greater extent). This means that the Church is perceived by part of Polish society as a quasi‑political institution, or at least one that attempts to fulfill political functions. This view, which is quite popular among Poles, has been maintained at a relatively stable level since 1989. Among those who believe that the Church takes up too much space in the public life of Poland are found those people in whom every reference to public matters results in a rejection reaction, as well as among those who take on a moderate attitude, who consider that it would be better if the Church were less involved in matters of public life, particularly political. Most Poles accepts the principle of separation of Church and state, even though close to half of those surveyed have nothing against authorities who follow the Catholic social teaching. The views of many Poles on the place and role of the Church in the public life of the nation are to a certain extent ambivalent, and even inconsistent and incoherent. A major subject of public controversy is the presence of religious symbols in public life space, although most of Polish society speaks about such symbols with approval.
EN
The discussed decision refers to the issue of constitutionality of religious symbols on public property. The Supreme Court ruled that 32-foot tall Latin cross erected nearly a century ago to commemorate soldiers who died in World War I did not violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The Court correctly holds that the religiously expressive monument me be retained for the sake of its historical significance and its place in a common cultural heritage. However, it gives rise to concerns that the Supreme Court set forth a presumption of consti- tutionality for only “longstanding” monuments, symbols, and practices. Similarly, the Court properly emphasizing the nonreligious meaning and functions of the contested cross, at the same time unduly underestimated its religious dimension. There is no need to overlook deeply Christian nature of the cross, when simultane- ously exhibiting its cultural and historical importance.
EN
The author examines the Marian symbolism in the Polish mediaeval and baroque texts. The article presents fragments of works in which one can find: the symbols from the Bible (such as Noah’s Ark, Eden), astronomical symbols (for example, sun, moon, dawn), floral motifs (such as flowers: rose, lily), and objects (such as a fortress, book or shield). The author reveals an ancient roots and durability of the basic meanings of religious symbols.
EN
This article discusses the issue of offending religious feelings in the light of Polish penal code. It is an attempt at answering the question of whether the standards really protect the values they were supposed to protect when they were instituted. And if they do, to what extent? Is the protection of religious feelings in Poland real or is it just a formal and legal illusion? An analysis of art. 196 of the penal code, as well as existing view on this doctrine shows a number of variances in interpretation. This leads to a conclusion that religious feelings may be protected under constitution, but the protection seems largely illusory in practice. Apart from the legislative and legal reservations, the low level of protection of religious feelings seems to also stem from the existing public attitudes, including the acceptance of the progressing insensitivity to Christian symbols. This acceptance is only seemingly harmless. In fact, it depreciates the sacred character of such objects. This results in a certain blurring of the notion of insult towards the objects of religious worship.
EN
The Lautsi and Others v. Italy [GC], no. 30814/06 case concerned the display of the crucifix in state school classrooms in Italy. In the judgement of 18 March 2011, Grand Chamber of the Court found no violation of the applicant’s rights under Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention. The Court further considered that no separate issue arose under Article 9. The principle of neutrality in the provision of public services, including that in the field of public education does not automatically imply secularism or the absence of any religious symbols. The case of Fernández Martínez v. Spain (application no. 56030/07) concerned the status of religious education teachers in state-run secondary education institutions and the respective roles of the state or its education authority, and the Church in the appointment and dismissal of such teachers. In the judgement of 15 May 2012 the Chamber of the Third Section found by six votes to one that the competent courts had struck a fair balance between various private interests and therefore that there had been no violation of Article 8 of the Convention. The case Lombardi Vallauri v. Italy concerned the dismissal of a professor at the Catholic University of Milan. It is one of the religious universities in Europe, universities ideologically or culturally oriented, which applies “ideological” or “doctrinal” criteria of appointment and dismissal of teachers. The Court held that the applicant, Lombardi Vallauri, had not had effective access to court, and found a violation of Article 6 § 1 by six votes to one. In the Eweida and others case, the subject is whether, to what extent, and under what conditions an employer may prohibit the manifestation of faith in the workplace by private employees, civil servants and other state employees. The domestic authorities had failed sufficiently to protect Ms Eweida’s right to manifest her religion, in breach of Article 9. The Court concluded in her case that a fair balance had not been struck. Indeed, the fact that the company had amended the uniform code to allow for visible wearing of religious symbolic jewellery showed that the earlier prohibition had not been of crucial importance. There had been no violation of Article 9 as concerned Ms Chaplin. The reason for asking Ms Chaplin to remove her cross, namely the protection of health and safety on a hospital ward, was inherently of much greater importance. The Court decided that there had been no violation of Article 14 taken in conjunction with Article 9, as concerning Ms Ladele, and no violation of Article 9 – taken alone or in conjunction with Article 14 – as concerning Mr McFarlane. The Court considered that the policies of the applicants’ employers – to promote equal opportunities and to require employees to act in a way which did not discriminate against others – had the legitimate aim of securing the rights of others, such as same-sex couples, which were also protected under the Convention.
EN
The ambiguous presence of religious themes in Czech prose of the end of the twentieth century is not sufficiently described by literary scholars. Czech literary critics did not appreciate the importance of this phenomenon. From the post-secular perspective it is clear that religious themes in literature are a manifestation of the search for metaphysics, crossing the rationalist vision of the world. The author reconstructs the symbolic language used by Martin Komárek when raising the subject of religion. His novel Mefitis is a record of contemporary experience of religiousness.     
PL
Artykuł przedstawia problem obecności krucyfiksu w przestrzeni publicznej w Repu-blice Włoskiej. W pierwszej części omówione zostało zagadnienie obecności krzyży w szkołach publicznych, punktem wyjścia była sprawa Lautsi przeciwko Włochom oraz zagadnienia historyczno-prawne. W drugiej części opisane zostały sprawy dotyczące obecności krzyży w lokalach wyborczych w odniesieniu do członków komisji wybor-czych oraz samych głosujących. Ostatni fragment został poświęcony sędziemu Luigie-mu Tosti, który sprzeciwił się obecności krucyfiksu we włoskich salach rozpraw. Celem badawczym autorki było udowodnienie, że w odniesieniu do problemu ekspozycji kru-cyfiksu w miejscach publicznych we Włoszech brak jest zgody, co prowadzi do powsta-nia niejednolitej linii orzeczniczej. Wyraźnie kształtują się dwa poglądy: grupa zwo-lenników oraz przeciwnicy obecności krucyfiksu w przestrzeni publicznej. Autorka posłużyła się metodą historyczno-opisową, formalno-dogmatyczną i kontekstową
EN
This article describes the problem of the presence of the crucifix in the Italian pub-lic space. At the beginning the author discussed the issue of the presence of crucifixes in public schools. The starting points are historical – legal issues and the Lautsi v. Ita-ly case brought before the European Court of Human Rights. Than the author pres-ents the problems concerning the presence of crucifixes in polling stations in respect of election judges and the voters themselves. The last part is dedicated to Judge Luigi To-sti, who objected to the presence of crucifixes in Italian courtrooms. The aim of the re-search of the author was to prove that, with respect to the problem of exposure of the crucifix in public places in Italy, there is a disagreement, which leads to an uneven line of jurisprudence. There are formed two views: a group of supporters and opponents of the presence of the crucifix in public space. The author used the historical – descriptive, formal – dogmatic and contextual methods
PL
Konferencja naukowa pt. „Ochrona wolności religijnej w krajach Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” odbyła się 26 listopada 2021 r. w Ministerstwie Sprawiedliwości Węgier, jako trzeci element wydarzeń zamykających działalność Sieci Profesorskiej Europy Środkowej. Jednym z ważniejszych punktów Konferencji była prezentacja książki, która powstała w wyniku prac członków grupy badawczej „Wolność sumienia i religia w Europie”, zatytułowanej „Symbole religijne w sferze publicznej”. Profesor Sobczyk, przewodniczący tego zespołu naukowców, przedstawił dwa główne zagadnienia, na których skupiła się praca badaczy, tj. ‘obecność symboli religijnych w przestrzeni publicznej’ oraz ‘ochrona przekonań religijnych w krajach Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej
EN
The scientific conference under the title ‘The protection of religious freedom in Central and Eastern European countries’ was held on 26 November 2021 in the Ministry of Justice of Hungary as the third element of the closing events of the Central European Professors’ Network. The event hosted a book launch as well: the members of the research group titled ‘Freedom of conscience and religion in Europe’ presented their book entitled ‘Religious Symbols in the Public Sphere’ which summarizes their results. Professor Sobczyk, the head of the research group, introduced the two main issues which the research group focused on, namely: ‘the presence of religious symbols in public space’ and ‘protection of religious belief in East-Central European countries’.
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2014-2015
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vol. 10-11
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issue 1: Prawo
77-88
PL
Niniejszy artykuł analizuje problematykę symboli religijnych jako wyrazu wolności religijnej w polskich szkołach. Zasadniczą podstawą dla wyciągniętych wniosków był wyrok Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka z 3 listopada 2009 r. Trybunał stwierdził, że obecność krzyża w szkołach włoskich stanowi pogwałcenie praw rodziców do wychowania dzieci zgodnie z ich przekonaniami. Autor artykułu odnosi się do poszczególnych kwestii w wyroku ETPC, analizując je w odniesieniu do obowiązującej w Polsce legislacji.
EN
The present article investigates the issue of religious symbols as an expression of the religious liberty at Polish schools. The essential condition for the conclusions drawn was the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights from November 3rd, 2009. The court stated that the presence of a crucifix at Italian schools is the violation of the parental right to educate their children according to their beliefs. The author of the article refers to the particular matters of the judgement of ECHR examining them with reference to current Polish legal regulations.
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Content available remote

The  politics of European human rights culture

63%
The Lawyer Quarterly
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2017
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vol. 7
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issue 3
200-215
EN
a1_The issue of religious symbols in the public space has given rise to widespread debate on the scope of freedom of religion and of the State’s neutrality in various countries around the world. Over the years, it has become a source of vigorous legal and political controversy. In Europe in particular, this question chiefly concerns the wearing of headscarves. Bans (often formulated as either bans on headgear or as general bans on religious symbols or dress) have been introduced by many countries and in many areas of life. Islamic dress tends to be commonly perceived (at least in the west) as being associated with the subordination of young girls and women and the perceived link with what is commonly termed "Islamic fundamentalism". The wearing of religious symbols has been discussed both from a socio-political as well as legal perspective. These developments, particularly attempts to change a cultural reticence to publicly express faith into a legal obligation to refrain from religious expression in certain circumstances, have brought major challenges for European human rights law, most notably in relation to the wearing of religious dress. Although most European legal systems provide protection for religious freedom and to religious minorities, the scope of this protection is affected by many factors, such as history, (constitutional) traditions and social factors. In essence, the term European human rights culture developed in the interplay of jurisprudence between The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). The text explores the two recent CJEU rulings and juxtaposes it against the recent developments in the ECtHR jurisprudence, focusing on how CJEU departs from the established manner set out by the ECtHR of dealing with cases involving the limitations on fundamental rights. The purpose of this is to present a reflection of the recent state of the European human rights culture, which has, in the past years, become very dynamic.
PL
Celem glosy jest analiza wyroku Trybunału Sprawiedliwości w sprawie L.F. v. S.C.R.L., w której Trybunał dokonał wykładni przepisów dyrektywy w sprawie równego traktowania (2000/78) w świetle ogólnego zakazu dyskryminacji ze względu na religię lub przekonania. Postępowanie krajowe dotyczyło wyznawczyni islamu, która nosiła chustę. W związku z wdrażaną polityką neutralności pracodawca odmówił jej zatrudnienia, ponieważ nie wyraziła zgody na zdjęcie chusty. W odpowiedzi na zadane pytania prejudycjalne Trybunał uznał, że w przedmiotowej sprawie nie doszło do dyskryminacji. Wyrok w sprawie L.F. stanowi kontynuację dotychczasowej linii orzeczniczej Trybunału w sprawach G4S i WABE. Artykuł analizuje orzecznictwo Trybunału Sprawiedliwości i Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka, które dotyczy manifestowania przekonań religijnych strojem i stawia pytanie, której wartości we współczesnym społeczeństwie europejskim należy przyznać pierwszeństwo – tożsamości jednostki czy wolności wykonywania działalności gospodarczej?
EN
The aim of this commentary is to analyse the judgment of the Court of Justice in L.F. v. S.C.R.L., in which the Court analysed provisions of the Equal Treatment Directive (2000/78) in light of the general prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief. The main proceedings in the case analysed concerned a Muslim woman who wore an Islamic headscarf and was doing an office internship at S.C.R.L., a cooperative limited liability company. Due to the neutrality policy at work, she was unable to manifest her religion and brought an action for a prohibitory injunction before a domestic court. In preliminary ruling, the Court decided that she was not a victim of discrimination. The F.L. judgment is a continuation of the Court’s line of judicial decisions in cases G4S and WABE referred to before. The article analyses the current case law of the CJEU and ECHR that touches on the problem of the expression of religious belief and seeks the answer to the question: Which value is more important to be protected in contemporary European society – the identity of the person or the freedom to conduct a business?
EN
The constitutionally declared secularism of the French Republic imposes the necessity to introduce provisions restricting the expansion of religious symbolism (including Christian symbols) in the public space of the state. A particular, increasing problem is related to the symbols of Islam, especially the specific dress code for women. The author describes the background of the confl ict, presents legal acts restricting the freedom of religion realized in this context, and refers to the most recent case law of the French courts and the European Court of Human Rights, hence he comprehensibly discusses the legal aspects of the issue.
PL
W artykule została omówiona problematyka związana z prawem do manifestowania przekonań religijnych na podstawie obowiązujących norm prawa europejskiego, których konkretyzację stanowi orzecznictwo ETPC. W sposób szczególny zwrócono uwagę na bardzo istotną rolę, jaką spełnia odpowiedź na pytanie, czy dane zachowanie stanowi manifestację przekonań religijnych, czy też jest nimi jedynie inspirowane bądź też jest kwestią osobistego wyboru. Jako przykład w trudności w odpowiedzi na to pytanie przywołano wyrok ETPC w sprawie Eweida i inni przeciwko Zjednoczonemu Królestwu, w którym kwestia ta zajmowała istotne miejsce. Trybunał uznał noszenie krzyżyka przez N. Eweidę i S. Chaplin za formę manifestacji ich wiary. Odrzucił jednocześnie stanowisko sądów brytyjskich, które zredukowały krzyżyk do biżuterii, a jego noszenie uznały za osobisty wybór skarżących.
EN
The article examines issues related to the right to manifest religious beliefs on the basis of existing European legislation, which is expressed especially in jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights. In particular, it highlighted the very important role of giving the answer to the question whether the behavior is a manifestation of religious beliefs, or is it only inspired by them or is only a matter of personal choice. As an example of the difficulties in answering this question, there was invoked the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in case Eweida and others against the United Kingdom, where this issue has occupied an important place. The Court considered wearing a cross by N. Eweida and S. Chaplin as a form of manifestation of their faith. The Court rejected the position of the British courts, which reduced cross for jewelry, and his wearing considered as a personal choice of the applicants.
EN
The main purpose of this article is to analyse the medial discourse connected with new ways of presenting religious symbols and social reactions to this. Religious symbols are used by communities that want to stand out in society. The research questions consider whether these events, treated by Catholics as scandalous and offensive, could be examples of a new form of hate speech in the Polish public sphere. If so, this would involve an evolution from the language sphere to the visual sphere and, therefore, would be a crucial shift in a cultural war in our society. The diagnosis of phenomena related to events perceived as “provocations” indicates that we are dealing with a new social problem. This problem involves people associated with the Catholic Church, the police, the court, and the prosecutor’s office because the authors of initiatives are accused of offending religious feelings, which, according to Art. 196 of the Criminal Code is a crime in Poland.
PL
Celem artykułu jest zbadanie dyskursu medialnego związanego z nowymi formami prezentacji symboli religijnych i ze społeczną reakcją na to zjawisko. Symbole religijne są wykorzystywane przez środowiska zainteresowane zaznaczeniem swojej obecności w społeczeństwie. Jednym z pytań badawczych jest pytanie o to, czy przykłady happeningów, uznawanych przez grupy katolików za skandaliczne i obraźliwe, mogą być dowodem na nową formę „mowy nienawiści” w sferze publicznej. Miałaby ona ewoluować ze sfery językowej w sferę wizualnych znaczeń i odgrywać ważną rolę w „wojnie kulturowej” na światopoglądy i wartości w naszym społeczeństwie. Diagnoza zjawiska związanego z happeningami odbieranymi jako „prowokacje” prowadzi do przekonania, że mamy do czynienia z nowym problemem społecznym. Angażuje on osoby związane z Kościołem katolickim, policję, sąd i prokuraturę, ponieważ autorzy inicjatyw są oskarżani o obrażanie uczuć religijnych, co zgodnie z art. 196 kodeksu karnego jest w Polsce przestępstwem.
EN
In the world where everything belongs to someone, trademark registration serves the purpose of appropriating symbols. But, as stipulated by the law, certain symbols cannot be appropriated. Whoever tries to do it – acts wrongly, and the State through its Patent Office, having judged that it is wrong, should refuse to register the mark. This assessment reaches its peak of difficulty in the case of religious symbols. Religion may distance itself from symbols altogether – from the simplified images of God, eternal matters or of its prophets. If they already exist, these symbols usually are not and cannot be ‘someone’s’ (it does not follow, however, that they are nobody’s), just as non-world entities – to which these symbols refer to – cannot be ‘someone else’s’. Some are ‘not made by a human hand’; the very thought that they could be registered as trademarks is ridiculous. Some seem to be something else, like an ‘elephant’ on the breast of the singer Rihanna which turned out to be an image of the Hindu god Ganesha. Some of them are, but the pressure is too great, and they can, like images of Guardian Angels stripped of their power, be bought in a market square. In this article, I will look at the Patent Office of the Republic of Poland when it is making such difficult assessments, trying to establish certain patterns in its decision process and formulate appropriate guidelines in this regard.
PL
W świecie, w którym wszystko jest czyjeś, zawłaszczaniu symboli służy rejestracja znaków towarowych. Ale, jak stoi w ustawie, pewnych symboli zawłaszczyć tak nie można. Kto próbuje to zrobić – robi źle, a Państwo poprzez Urząd Patentowy RP, oceniwszy, że źle robi, powinno mu rejestracji znaku odmówić. Ocena ta osiąga szczytowy stopień trudności w przypadku znaków z symbolami religijnymi. Religia może w ogóle odżegnywać się od symboli - od spłaszczających postać rzeczy wyobrażeń Boga, spraw ostatecznych czy też swoich proroków. Jeśli już są, symbole te najczęściej nie są i nie mogą być „czyjeś” (nie znaczy to jednak również, że są niczyje) tak jak nie mogą być „czyjeś” byty nie z tego świata, do których się odnoszą. Niektóre są „nie ręką ludzką stworzone”; sama myśl, że mogłyby zostać zarejestrowane jako znaki towarowe jawi się jako niedorzeczna. Niektóre wydają się być czymś innym, jak ostatnio „słoń” na biuście piosenkarki Rhianny okazał się być wizerunkiem hinduskiego boga Ganeśi. Niektóre są nimi, ale presja jest zbyt wielka i można je, jak wizerunki Aniołów Stróżów, wyzutych ze swojej potęgi, kupić na bazarku. Przyglądniemy się w niniejszym artykule Urzędowi Patentowemu RP dokonującemu takich trudnych ocen, starając się ustalić pewne prawidłowości w jego orzekaniu i na ich tle sformułować odpowiednie wytyczne w tym zakresie.
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