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EN
This article assesses the impact of legal rules aimed at preventing genocide. The specific features of the legal obligation to prevent genocide are analyzed in light of the current debate on the “responsibility to protect” and the ICJ’s stance on the issue in Bosnia v Serbia. While the content of positive obligations such as the one under discussion is usually elaborated through the case law of judicial or quasi-judicial bodies, the ICJ refrained from doing so, stating that only manifest breaches of the obligation to prevent genocide give rise to international responsibility. The author seeks an explanation for the reasons underlying such an approach, and tries to identify other ways in which legal standards in the field of genocide prevention could be developed.
EN
One of the most prevalent features of contemporary international relations system is erosion of sovereignty concept leading to human rights protection priority and humanitarian intervention enactment acceptability. Sovereignty in its modern approach is understood as state obligation and responsibility to secure welfare for its citizens and it refers to effective governance. It is assumed that individual interests outweigh interests of the state, though the sovereignty exception cannot be raised as defense against the necessity of intervention in the case of basic human rights breach. At this point sovereignty means the state responsibility for the wellbeing of its citizens. It led to Responsibility to Protect project arising from the debate on association between independence and use of force and human rights protection. The doctrine embedded in this project brought very good reception within international community and was designed to establish criteria for the scripts of international reaction to armed conflicts and genocide, ethnic atrocities and war crimes prevention. Nevertheless, discussion around informal (mostly moral) prerequisites to use force in reaction to serious human rights infringements did not lead to creation of consistent system of intervention on international level.
EN
Globalization has given opportunities to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to emerge on the world stage as one of the central players in the processes of promotion and protection of human rights around the world. The emergence of new actors in the human rights field raises questions not only about their impact on the protection of human rights, but also their impact on the state, which for a long time has had a monopoly on deciding how to treat its citizens. The article aims to analyze the role of human rights NGOs from the perspective of state sovereignty versus/and human rights, and provide answers to the following questions: what is the input of NGOs in protecting human rights? Do their activities lead to real improvements in human rights practices within a state? What is their impact on state sovereignty? How do the activities of NGOs influence the state's authority and legitimacy? Analysis has shown that the impact of human rights NGOs on state sovereignty and human rights protection depends on many factors, such as the country's level of development, political regime, the size of human rights NGOs, etc. This leads to the tentative conclusion that human rights NGOs may be both human rights defenders and state sovereignty destroyers.
EN
The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was created in the hope of overcoming the barrier that state sovereignty, as a principle, had become to actions of humanitarian intervention. It was imagined that as mass atrocity crimes were coming to the attention of the international community, that, on the whole, they were willing, able and eager to intervene in order to stop the violence in question. Holding them back was sovereignty as both a legal and normative barrier. This was always a bad explanation for the pervasive lack of humanitarian intervention; accordingly R2P, as a bad solution, has failed almost entirely. The problem is, and always has been, that when faced with mass atrocity crimes, the international community is plagued by a near-permanent lack of political will to action.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy wojny w Ukrainie i prawa tego państwa do samoobrony. Nie chodzi tylko o legitymowaną obronę konieczną, lecz o społeczną samoobronę. Stąd pod pewnymi warunkami jest wywodzone prawo do interwencji militarnej, tzw. interwencji humanitarnej. Koncepcja ta została sformułowana w dokumencie Komitetu Centralnego Niemieckich Katolików z 2000 r., a później poszerzona o zasadę odpowiedzialności w zakresie obrony albo Responsibility To Protect, która podczas szczytu Narodów Zjednoczonych w Nowym Jorku w 2004/2005 r. została przez prawie wszystkie państwa uznana i proklamowana jako obowiązek moralny. Kryteria tam sformułowane w swojej treści wykazują wyraźną zbieżność z katolickim nauczaniem na temat „wojny sprawiedliwej”. W przeszłości lepiej byłoby poważnie traktować hegemoniczne zamiary Putina, komunikowane już od wielu lat, i rozwinąć strategie prewentywne, gdyż nowoczesna wojna nie przynosi zwycięzcy, a jedynie przegranych. Ujęcie to przedstawia encyklika papieża Franciszka Fratelli tutti, którą można czytać jako encyklikę na temat pokoju, a wojna w Ukrainie je potwierdza.
EN
The presented article concerns the war in Ukraine and the right of this country to self-defense. There is no talk about legitimate necessary defense, but about social self-defense. From this, under certain conditions derived the right to military intervention, so called humanitarian intervention.This concept was formulated in the document of the Central Committee of German Catholics in 2000 and later extended by principle of responsibility in the defense – ResponsibilityTo Protect, which during the summit of United Nations in New York in 2004/2005 were acknowledged and proclaimed as a moral obligation. The criteria formulated in them demonstrate in their content an explicit convergence with the Catholic teaching on “just war”. In the past it was better to treat the seriously hegemonial intentions of Putin, as communicated for a lot of years, and developed preventative strategies, because modern warfare only brings beatings and not any winner. This approach is presented in the encyclical letter of Pope Francis Fratelli tutti, which can be read as a document about peace, and the war in Ukraine confirms it.
DE
Der vorliegende Beitrag handelt über den Krieg in der Ukraine und ihrem Recht auf Selbstverteidigung. Es geht nicht mehr um legitime individuelle Notwehr, sondern um soziale Notwehr. Daraus wird unter den gegebenen Voraussetzungen das Recht zum militärischen Eingreifen, zur so genannten humanitären Intervention abgeleitet.Dieses Konzept wurde in einem Thesenpapier des Zentralkomitees der deutschen Katholiken aus dem Jahr 2000 formuliert und später zur Schutzverantwortung oder Responsibility To Protect erweitert, das im Jahr 2004/2005 auf dem Weltgipfel der Vereinten Nationen in New York von fast allen Staaten der Erde anerkannt und sogar zur moralischen Pflicht erklärt wurde. Die dort formulierten Kriterien geben in der Sache eine deutliche Affinität zur katholischen Lehre vom gerechten Krieg zu erkennen. Besser wäre es gewesen, Putins hegemoniale Absichten, die er schon seit Jahren offen kommuniziert hatte, ernst zu nehmen und präventive Strategien zu entwickeln. Denn der moderne Krieg bringt keine Sieger mehr hervor, sondern am Ende nur Verlierer. In seiner Enzyklika Fratelli tutti, die man durchaus als Friedensenzyklika lesen kann, bringt Papst Franziskus diese Einsicht auf den Punkt. Der Krieg in der Ukraine wird diese Einsicht bestätigen. 
EN
The article is focused on critical infrastructure protection in the field of selected liability issues. Critical infrastructure is significant from the country’s integrity and continuity point of view at all levels: economic, social and political. The process of sectoral markets liberalisation and the spread of international connections of these markets (e.g. arising of transeuropean networks) have resulted in shared responsibility on critical infrastructure protection. Protection duties have been divided between private (infrastructure operators) and public authorities. It is seemingly clear which one: the former or the latter bears responsibility for the protection of critical infrastructure during and after its disruption. In fact clarificatio of this area poses a problem at the level of prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. The critical infrastructure protection becomes a jigsaw puzzle of imperium and dominium relations that results in sophisticated picture of responsibility.
PL
W artykule zarysowano problematykę ochrony infrastruktury krytycznej na tle wybranych aspektów odpowiedzialności prawnej. Infrastruktura krytyczna stanowi istotny element ciągłości funkcjonowania państwa w wymiarze gospodarczym, społecznym i politycznym. Podstawę odpowiedzialności prawnej za jej ochronę stanowią normy prawa administracyjnego, cywilnego i karnego. Odpowiedzialność ta pozostaje rozproszona pomiędzy podmioty prywatne i publiczne, co stanowi skutek procesów liberalizacji i internacjonalizacji rynków sektorowych (np. tworzenie sieci transeuropejskich). Wyznaczenie jej granic w przypadku pojawienia się lub eskalacji zagrożeń dla funkcjonowania infrastruktury krytycznej na etapie zapobiegania, reagowania i odbudowy może stwarzać problemy natury prawnej. Ochrona infrastruktury krytycznej staje się trudnym do ustalenia mariażem dwóch sfer: imperium i dominium.
EN
The article presents an issue of the intervention to protect the Yezidis started in August 2014 in northern Iraq. The United States, the crucial intervener, had the consent of the Iraqi government to conduct military operations in favour of its territorial integrity and to protect Iraqi citizens. However, there were also other interveners and the military actions took place nor only in the Iraqi territory. The author of the article argues that in the military operation to protect the Yezidi people, much more elements of humanitarian intervention than of the responsibility to protect can be found. Thus the various components of the military action in 2014 to protect the Yezidis were presented through the prism of ideas of humanitarian intervention and responsibility to protect.
PL
W artykule przedstawiona jest interwencja w obronie jezydów zapoczątkowana w sierpniu 2014 roku w północnym Iraku. Podmiotem operacji były przede wszystkim Stany Zjednoczone dysponujące zgodą irackiego rządu na prowadzenie działań zbrojnych na rzecz integralności terytorialnej oraz ochrony obywateli Iraku. Autor artykułu dowodzi, że w operacji w obronie jezydów, wbrew powszechnym przekonaniom, można odnaleźć znacznie więcej elementów interwencji humanitarnej niż odpowiedzialności za ochronę. W tym celu poszczególne komponenty operacji w obronie jezydów zostały zaprezentowane przez pryzmat koncepcji interwencji humanitarnej i odpowiedzialności za ochronę.
EN
The aim of the article is to indicate relatively new UN instruments which can be used to build peace and to increase international security, such as the concept of „the responsibility to protect” and a relatively new UN body – the Peacebuilding Commission. Before it takes place, however, it is necessary to present a system of UN collective security, its evolution and evaluation pointing out its weaknesses and the projects of reforms of the UN Security Council inspired by it. In this light there shall be presented new instruments and possibilities which they carry with themselves in the sphere of international security.
PL
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie stosunkowo nowych instrumentów ONZ, które mogą zostać wykorzystane do budowania pokoju i zwiększenia bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego, takich jak koncepcja „odpowiedzialności za ochronę” oraz stosunkowo nowy organ ONZ Komisja Budowania Pokoju. Przedtem jednak konieczne jest przedstawienie systemu bezpieczeństwa zbiorowego ONZ, jego ewolucji i oceny ze wskazaniem na słabości tego systemu oraz inspirowane tym projekty reformy Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ. Na tym tle zostaną wskazane nowe instrumenty i możliwości, jakie one niosą w sferze bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego.
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