This paper provides a theoretical explanation of what causes historical issues to impact bilateral relations between two states. The case which was chosen for analysis – popularly known as the Katyń issue – involves changes in Polish foreign policy towards the Russian Federation due to the remembrance of the Katyń Massacre. The main assumptions are based on the concept of securitization and its analytical framework, particularly the societal portion, which is proposed by the Copenhagen School of security study. The process of European integration can be seen as the main causal factor leading to a complex of vertical and horizontal competition between Poland, the EU, and Russia over the construction of their historical identities with a referent object of securitization in Poland. The main conclusion of this paper suggests that significant differences in the understanding of various nations’ roles in WW2 between the EU and Russia have led to the securitization of the Polish historical image of WW2. The Polish audience considered it important to accept the historical truth. The Katyń issue in Polish–Russian relations has become a case that reflects the process which leads to securitization of disputes between historical victims and victimizers on a state–to–state level.
The article describes the significant impact social media has on politics and handling political emergencies. After analysing key characteristics of social media, the author takes a closer look at the notion of crisis as a social phenomenon and explores what use can be made of social media in the face of critical situations. Using the theoretical framework provided by Barry Buzan in his securitization theory, she looks back at the recent examples of political crises in which social media played an important role, to eventually pose a question of the perspectives given by social media to the future political discourse.
PL
W artykule opisano znaczący wpływ mediów społecznościowych na politykę i możliwości zarządzania politycznymi sytuacjami kryzysowymi. Po przeprowadzeniu analizy najważniejszych cech charakteryzujących media społecznościowe, autorka koncentruje się na pojęciu kryzysu jako zjawiska społecznego i potencjalnych zastosowaniach mediów społecznościowych w obliczu sytuacji kryzysowych. Korzystając z aparatury pojęciowej zawartej w teorii sekurytyzacji Barry'ego Buzana, przygląda się niedawnym przykładom kryzysów politycznych, w których media społecznościowe odegrały istotną rolę, by w końcu zadać pytanie o perspektywy oferowane przez media społecznościowe przyszłemu dyskursowi politycznemu.
This article is a contribution to security sciences which underlines, on the basis of the multidisciplinary approach, the importance of skill levels in relation to the resistance to the securitization of security issues in connection with the development of European integration. It enriches the field of security management using the method of securitization as well as the the perspective of political science, sociology, and economic theory. Through the example of French referendum on the European constitutional treaty, it demonstrates the importance of skill level for the susceptibility of different population groups to the securitization of the topics of the campaign, namely within the context of the deepening of European integration, which respectively threatens certainty and increases uncertainty. The paper also draws attention to the possibility of emergence of the so-called paradox of securitization.
This article is a contribution to security sciences which underlines, on the basis of the multidisciplinary approach, the importance of skill levels in relation to the resistance to the securitization of security issues in connection with the development of European integration. It enriches the field of security management using the method of securitization as well as the the perspective of political science, sociology, and economic theory. Through the example of French referendum on the European constitutional treaty, it demonstrates the importance of skill level for the susceptibility of different population groups to the securitization of the topics of the campaign, namely within the context of the deepening of European integration, which respectively threatens certainty and increases uncertainty. The paper also draws attention to the possibility of emergence of the so-called paradox of securitization.
Background. The intensification of migratory flows has opened up a discussion on the values on which the European Union is based. Securitization of migration in Italy has influenced changes in migration law and political discourse. Aim. The main aim of the article was to determine the impact of legislation and policies on migration and migrants in Italy. Method. We conducted a review of the narrative literature from the studied area. In our work we used the methodology of political sciences. We have subjected normative acts to in-depth analysis. In addition, we used the results of statistical research. Results. There is a strong link between the securitization of Italian migration and asylum law and the situation of migrants and refugees in Italy. The architecture of Italian migration law reflects the politicisation of the problem. Securitization has enabled extraordinary legal measures to be taken in the name of security. Italian migration policy and law from 2017-2019 has negatively affected the quality of life and the integration of migrants. Additional information. The results provide a starting point for broader research into other European migration systems and policies. The results of an in-depth comparative analysis and the use of countries’ experiences may be a starting point for redefining the Polish migration law and policy on migration and migrants.
Analyzing Poland’s current activity regarding the influx of refugees and the formulated attitude towards action in the field of restriction and control of the influx undertaken by European and international institutions, one should notice increasing reluctance to accept immigrants. What is more, there is a growing trend in the public debate in Poland to identify (to correlate) the influx of refugees with the problem of security. Although Poland is neither located on the main transit routes nor a destination for immigrants (including refugees), there is a process of systematically including this issue in the public discourse and analyzing the consequences of the potential increase in the influx of immigrants in the context of state security. Relationships that arise at the interface between migration and security point to the process of securitization of immigration, which involves integrating migration issues into a catalogue of state security threats and considering them through the lens of possible threats to the receiving societies.
Russia’s attack on Ukraine has had huge and destructive consequences for Iran. The war began when the nuclear negotiations between Iran and the Western countries for the revival of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action ( JCPOA) were in a promising state and the parties were in the final stages. This paper seeks to examine the effects of this war on Iran’s foreign policy by considering securitization and desecuritization. Considering this, the paper concludes that Iran has faced the direct consequences of the war in its domestic and foreign policies. At the foreign policy level, Iran has faced a decrease in international prestige due to its proximity to Russia, the use Iranian drones by Russia on the battlefield and the ‘death’ of the JCPOA. As the West securitized the issue of Iran, Iranian authorities desecuritized Iran’s relations with Arab countries, while securitized relations with the Caucasus.
Motivation: Financialization is a multidimensional, complex process, which is currently developing very strongly and which can affect the economy in a positive or negative way. A positive impact usually materializes in the form of an increase in the level of GDP, and a negative one in the form of supremacy of the financial area over the real sphere, an increase in the role of financial activity of non-financial entities, and even the autonomy of the financial sphere in relation to the real sphere.Aim: The purpose of this article is to identify and assess the impact of the financialization process on the modern economy and to look at this process as one of the potential sources of financial crises. This article focuses on the negative effects of financialization and uses the example of the American crisis of 2008.Materials and methods: review and critical review of the literature and reports from the financial sector, with particular emphasis on the negative impact of financialization on the US financial sector in 2008.Results: The first part presents the essence and characteristics of financialization and attempts to systematize this process. In the second part, financialization was looked at through the prism of the risk it brings, the materialization of the effects of which may lead to serious economic turbulence, and even to financial crises. The level of these effects was presented and assessed, as well as the methods of action of the American government, which contributed to minimizing the effects of the 2008 crisis, but which at the same time cannot be considered effective in the fight against financialization.
The investigation of insurance debts, ie, unpaid premiums, and insurance subrogation, is an important issue in the insurance business. The importance of issue was confirmed by the legislature – according to the law on insurance activity, collecting of insurance debts is among insurance operations. To achieve the aim of debt collecting, insurance companies look for tools to improve the efficiency of proceedings. Economic information bureau and a process of debt securitization of insurance with an investment fund are good examples of the instrument to improve the efficiency. The threat of transmission of an information about a debtor to an economic information bureau makes a debtor more willing to pay a debt. The main reason is difficulty in obtaining credit when a debtor is recorded in an economic information bureau. Information about a debtor may be forwarded to an economic information bureau in cases strictly defined by law. It is not allowed to inform an economic information bureau about a debtor who doesn’t pay an insurance subrogation. The purpose of the securitization of insurance debt is to improve the cash flow of a insurance company as well as financial indicators of a insurance company.
Established in 2008, the Council of Europe’s Intercultural Cities Network “supports cities in reviewing their policies — and developing comprehensive intercultural strategies to help them manage diversity positively and realize the diversity advantage” (ICC, 2018). According to their website, the ICC approach “helps build trust between members of the community through policies which encourage mixing, interaction and participation” (ibid). More than a hundred cities are now members of the ICC network, but their discourse — based on dialogue and trust — is challenged by another apparently contradictory discourse. According to Asa and Yaari (2014), two Israeli military experts, the era of wars between nationstates has passed, but has not brought about a kind of ‘world peace’ as expected. What has emerged are the ‘new wars’ — which are conducted within a civilian environment, between the authorities and enemies who are citizens of the state or its residents. Unlike the ‘enemy of the past’, who could be identified by means of his uniform, language, appearance or simply being a foreigner, the new enemies are hard to recognize, as, in the age of globalization, the cosmopolitan city is full of aliens — most of whom, of-course, are not enemies at all. (Asa and Yaari, 2014). According to Arjun Appadurai (2006) the globalization process makes it very difficult to define who ‘we’ are and who ‘they’ are, thus creating feelings of constant uncertainty. This is the discourse of mistrust and suspicion, which challenges the ICC’s discourse of trust and dialogue. The current paper is part of a PhD research done in the years 2015–2018 for the Haifa University Anthropology Department, supervised by Prof. Amalia Sa’ar. It was based on about 20 interviews with integration officers in European cities which are members of the ICC network, as well as observations in different conferences and trainings held by the organization. The paper examines the complex and fascinating ways these two discourses challenge each other, contradict, react or get entangled with one another in trying to deal with the reality of these years of terror.
The article looks at capital markets union (CMU), i.e. an action plan of the European Commission to mobilise capital in Europe and channel it to companies, especially small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The main aim of the study is to examine the sources of financing identified in the CMU plan and discuss whether European SMEs will make use and benefit from the proposal. The evaluation of the CMU as an initiative aimed at supporting the EU economy and the growth of their SMEs by providing a greater choice of funding sources is also presented in the paper.
Russia’s aggression against Ukraine has led to an increased interest in knowledge about warfare. The public debate about this war has become a test for the expertise skills of numerous scholars and government analysts. Within a few months, a new epistemic community emerged, which began to create a security discourse around the problems of the Russian-Ukrainian war. The article tries to explain the key terms used in this discourse and to indicate what classical texts in the field of international relations say about the causes and course of the Russian-Ukrainian war. In order to compare theory with practice, the author analysed several hundred expert publications on the war and conducted a total of several dozen interviews and surveys in 2022 in the Polish expert community. This text is therefore based on both a theoretical analysis and an insight into the reasoning of the epistemic community of experts educated in the field of security studies.
Artykuł odnosi się do pojęcia sekurytyzacji w polskim prawie handlowym. Celem niniejszej publikacji jest przybliżenie etapów upowszechniania się umowy sekurytyzacji w obrocie handlowym, jej charakteru prawnego, ustabilizowanych składników, dopuszczalności przedmiotowej i podmiotowej, praw i obowiązków stron i innych podmiotów uczestniczących w jej zawieraniu, celu gospodarczego, możliwego wpływu na sytuację finansową przedsiębiorstwa będącego stroną umowy sekurytyzacji, a także uświadomienie upowszechnienia się sekurytyzacji w Polsce ze względu na możliwe korzyści jej przeprowadzenia, a co za tym idzie, konieczności uregulowania prawnie jej zawierania. W artykule pominięte zostały szczegółowe kwestie regulacji prawnej przeprowadzenia sekurytyzacji w Polsce ze względu na ich szczątkowość, nadmierny formalizm i niedopasowanie do realiów obecnego obrotu gospodarczego. W zakończeniu autor przedstawia postulaty de lege ferenda co do regulacji prawnej sekurytyzacji w Polsce w nawiązaniu do nieuchwalonego projektu ustawy o sekurytyzacji z 2003 r.
EN
Article refers to the concept of securitization in the Polish commercial law. The aim of this publication is to present the stages of dissemination of securitization in the course of trade, its legal nature, stable ingredients, the objective and subjective admissibility, the rights and obligations of the parties and other entities participating in securitization, the economic purpose, the possible impact on the financial undertaking which is party to the securitization, as well as the realization spread of securitization in Poland due to the possible benefit of its conduct, and hence, the need to regulate by law its conclusion. The article has been omitted specific issues of legal regulation of securitization carried out in Poland, due to their residualness, excessive formalism and mismatch to the realities of the current economic turnover. In conclusion, the author presents proposals de lege ferenda about the legal regulation of securitization in Poland in relation to non enacted draft law on securitization of 2003.
The article investigates recent developments and changes to the Middle Eastern regional security complex. The regional security complexes theory (RSCT) assumes that security problems rarely impact on large distances and that similar threats occur mostly in specific regions. According to RSCT, the Middle East is a typical conflict formation, with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the Iraqi crisises being the biggest problems and most serious threats to the regional security. The author argues, however, that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict does no longer play a major role in the regional security, and the recent crisis in Iraq, although still important, has completely different character than it had previously. Security of the Middle Eastern regional complex is now shaped and challenged by a different set of factors. This includes primarily the impact of the rising Sunni-Shiite hostility, growing popularity and importance of Islamic fundamentalism, as well as the instability and unpredictability of local political regimes.
Lack of progress has been the impulse to look into the causes of impasse in establishment of the International Climate Protection Regime. The present paper deals with the process of securitization and economization of security that can help to clarify the reasons behind this stagnation. Problems in international regulation does not lie in the aspects of the economy but above all in the different perception of energy and climate issues by citizens, which results in recognizing energy issues by leading emitters as standing higher in the hierarchy of objectives pursued by countries, than climate change. In this situation it will be very difficult to establish limits of CO2 emission. It seems that Green Economy and RES development thanks technological progress is the chance for climate protection rather because of economic reasons than ecologic ones.
PL
Brak postępu był impulsem do zbadania przyczyn impasu w stworzenie międzynarodowego reżimu ochrony klimatu. Niniejszej pracy zajmuje się procesu sekurytyzacji i ekonomizacji bezpieczeństwa, które mogą pomóc wyjaśnić przyczyny tej stagnacji. Problemy w ustanowieniu międzynarodowych regulacji nie leżą w aspekty gospodarki, ale przede wszystkim w różnych postrzegania energii i klimatu problemów przez obywateli, których wyniki w rozpoznawaniu problemów energii przez wiodących emitentów jako stojących wyżej w hierarchii celów realizowanych przez kraje, niż zmiany klimatu. W tej sytuacji będzie bardzo trudne ustalenie limitów emisji CO2. Wydaje się, że zielona gospodarka i OZE rozwoju dzięki postępowi technologicznemu jest szansą dla ochrony klimatu raczej z przyczyn ekonomicznych niż ekologiczne.
This paper reviews the contemporary theoretical approaches to the subjects of international security policy and energy security. Apart from discussing the theory of securitization, especially in context of a theoretical debate between representatives of political realism and constructivism, key research dilemmas, concerning the defining of energy security and crucial security threats, will be presented as well. Second part of the paper contains a short description of international politics in the Central Asia, with particular reference to presentation of politics of the regional political powers and the post-Soviet republics. It is followed by presentation of securitizing actions of those subjects taken in the field of energy security. Among presented contexts of those actions are following issues: development of drilling infrastructure, security of transport, conflicts concerning access to alternative energy sources and political power game in presented region.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14762
Securitized financial instruments market is one of the segments of the financial markets of the euro area. The main instrument of this market are: MBS (Mortagage Backed Securities), ABS ( Asset Backet Securities), CDO (Collateralized Debt Obligations) and ABCP (Asset Backed Commercial Papers). Securitization market instruments developed in the euro zone by 2009, growing turnover and emissions. As a result of the global financial crisis, this market has shrunk considerably. This article presents the main groups of securitized financial instruments in the euro area and to assess the changes that have taken place during the global financial crisis.
The article presents the impact of the process of securitization of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) on the changes in Ukrainian law on religion since the Revolution of Dignity (Euromaidan). Securitization as a concept originated in security sciences belongs to constructivist approaches because under these approaches the threat is not a real phenomenon. The threat is subjectively indicated by the actor of the process and recognized as such by its recipients. Although this study is not concerned with the securitization process itself, it emphasizes the circumstances surrounding its consequences for law on religion. Among these circumstances is the war in Donbas and granting autocephaly to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church by the Ecumenical Patriarchate. The article discusses the normative acts adopted after 2013, which oblige the Ukrainian Orthodox Church to include its subordination to the Russian Orthodox Church in its name, making it easier for parish communities to change their jurisdictional subordination and hindering the functioning of military pastoral care in the Armed Forces and other military formations.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono wpływ procesu sekurytyzacji Ukraińskiego Kościoła Prawosławnego w jedności z Patriarchatem Moskiewskim na zmiany w ustawodawstwie wyznaniowym Ukrainy od rewolucji godności (Euromajdanu). Wyodrębniana na gruncie nauk o bezpieczeństwie sekurytyzacja należy do podejść konstruktywistycznych, ponieważ zgodnie z tym ujęciem zagrożenie nie jest zjawiskiem realnym. Zagrożenie jest subiektywnie wskazywane przez aktora procesu oraz za takie uznawane przez jego odbiorców. Na gruncie pracy sam proces sekurytyzacji nie jest przedmiotem zainteresowania. Podkreślono okoliczności towarzyszące jego skutkom w zakresie regulacji wyznaniowych, wśród których zidentyfikowano wojnę w Donbasie i przyznanie autokefalii Kościołowi Prawosławnemu Ukrainy przez Patriarchat Ekumeniczny. Omówione zostały akty normatywne przyjęte po 2013 r., zobowiązujące Ukraiński Kościół Prawosławny do uwzględnienia w swojej nazwie podporządkowania Rosyjskiemu Kościołowi Prawosławnemu, ułatwiające wspólnotom parafialnym zmianę podporządkowania jurysdykcyjnego, a także utrudniające funkcjonowanie duszpasterstwa wojskowego w Siłach Zbrojnych i innych formacjach wojskowych.
Wydarzenia i procesy ostatnich dziesięcioleci przypominają nam o hipnotycznej iluzji „końca historii”. „Powrót historii” jest nie tylko koniecznym krokiem, który należy podjąć, ale jest ontologicznie nieunikniony. Zaślepieni mobilną armią metafor, metonimów i antropomorfizmów, musimy dostrzec, że procesy XXI wieku nie różnią się od dawnej polityki, która została zapisana w historii, dlatego nieuniknione jest myślenie w ramach „dialektyki starego i nowego”. Globalizacja, relatywizacja wartości, usuwanie granic i re-narracja granic w niewidzianych wcześniej obszarach prowadzą nas do egzystencjalnego punktu zerowego. Granice odgrywają istotną rolę samostanowiącą i samookreślającą w naszym życiu i społeczeństwie, dlatego ich relokacja reorientacja i zacieranie się ich znaczenia, jest kwestią, którą należy przeanalizować i uważnie obserwować. Wraz z narracją granic główną rolę odgrywa narracja na temat bezpieczeństwa. Migracja i kwestia otwartych, przepuszczalnych granic stały się jedną z najważniejszych narracji bezpieczeństwa w naszym codziennym życiu.
EN
The events and processes of the recent decades drive us to awake from the hypnotic illusion of the ‘end of history’. The ‘return of history’ is not only a necessary step that has to be taken, but it is ontologically inevitable. Blinded by the mobile army of metaphors, metonyms and anthropomorphisms, we need to see that the processes of the 21st century are no different from the old politics which were recorded in history, thus it is unavoidable to think within the ‘dialectics of Old and New’. Globalization, relativization of values, removal of borders and the re-narration of borders in previously unseen areas lead us to an existential zero point. Borders play significant self-determining and self-definition role in our life and society, thus their relocation, reorientation and blurring of their meaning is a question that has to be analysed and closely watched. Together with the narration of borders, the narration of security plays major role. Migration and the question of open, permeable borders have become one of the most important security narrations of our everyday life.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: The aim of the paper is to present the conditions and effects of theglobal migration crisis, which appeared in connection with the health crisis caused by the COVID19 pandemic. It also undertakes a preliminary analysis of the possibilities of mitigating its effectswithin the global migration management system.THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The research problem focuses on the impact ofthe health crisis on migration processes, especially in the context of tightening national immigration regimes and securitization. It also takes into account the potential of a migration managementsystem to restore the global benefits of safe migrant mobility. The article is based on the politicalscience analysis of the content of the reports and a review of the latest scientific literature.THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: The starting point of the argumentation is to emphasize the importance of the greatest decline in human mobility in modern times for the outbreak ofa migration crisis. It was pointed out that the long-term closure of borders may lead to the risk offailure of the entire migration system. The provisions of the 2018 Global Compact for Migrationagreement were indicated as a corrective instrument.RESEARCH RESULTS: The analysis leads to the conclusion that more than perhaps any crisis inthe past COVID-19 clearly demonstrates the need to include migrants in crisis management and tofind long-term solutions to a new type of migration problem when the acute phase of the crisis is over.CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Due to the fact of important roleof migrants in the economic, social and cultural fabric of the globalized world, it seems necessaryto deepen initial reflections on the migration management system in the context of a health crisis.
PL
CEL NAUKOWY: Artykuł ma celu przedstawienie uwarunkowań i skutków światowego kryzysu migracyjnego, który pojawił się w związku z kryzysem zdrowotnym wywołanym przez pandemię COVID-19. Podejmuje on również wstępną analizę możliwości łagodzenia jego następstw w ramach globalnego systemu zarządzania migracją. PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Problem badawczy koncentruje się wokół kwestii wpływu kryzysu zdrowotnego na procesy migracyjne, zwłaszcza w kontekście zaostrzenia krajowych reżimów imigracyjnych i zjawiska sekurytyzacji oraz na światowy system zarządzania migracją. Artykuł powstał na podstawie politologicznej analizy treści raportów organizacji międzynarodowych i przeglądu najnowszej literatury naukowej. PROCES WYWODU: Punktem wyjścia wywodu jest podkreślenie znaczenia faktu największego spadku ludzkiej mobilności w czasach nowożytnych dla wybuchu nowego typu kryzysu migracyjnego. Zwrócono uwagę, że długotrwałe zamknięcie granic mogło doprowadzić do ryzyka niewydolności całego systemu migracyjnego. Zapisy porozumienia „Global Compact for Migration” z 2018 roku wskazano jako instrument naprawczy w sytuacji nakładających się na siebie kryzysów zdrowotnego i migracyjnego. WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Analiza prowadzi do konkluzji, że w większym stopniu niż być może jakikolwiek kryzys w przeszłości, COVID-19 wskazuje na potrzebę włączenia migrantów do zarządzania kryzysowego oraz znalezienia długoterminowych rozwiązań dla nowego typu problemów migracyjnych wraz z końcem ostrej fazy kryzysu. WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Z uwagi na istotne miejsce migrantów w ekonomicznej, społecznej i kulturowej tkance zglobalizowanego świata, niezbędnym wydaje się pogłębienie wstępnych refleksji dotyczących systemu zarządzania migracją w sytuacji kryzysu zdrowotnego.
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