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Outer space and private companies consequences for global security

100%
Frankowski P.
Politeja : Pismo Wydziału Studiów Miedzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
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2017
|
issue 50
131-147
EN
The paper focuses on sectors, methods, and spheres of the space activity of private companies, to provide empirical analysis of space applications and implications for global security. Special emphasis has been given to private companies offering access to satellite imagery and satellite remote sensing, as well as companies entering outer space with new and prospective capabilities as space mining. The article explains the rising importance of geo-intelligence, space surveillance and telecommunication for global security and new kind of security challenges and vulnerabilities such as environmental problems in outer space or technological challenges to security. The author argues that profit-oriented companies play crucial role in new security environment in the US, efficiently changing the law and practice. Finally he points out that new and growing market for subcontractors in space applications raises questions on growing dependence on private resources in traditional sphere of state activity, namely security, in this case provided from and through the outer space.
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Global Space Security and Counter-space Capabilities: the Legal and Political Challenges

100%
Polkowska M.
Adam Mickiewicz University Law Review
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2019
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vol. 9
101-120
EN
This article undertakes a very sensitive issue: space security and counterspace capabilities and arms control. Those issues come under the sovereignty of each state and are strictly connected to national defense and policy. Counterspace, also known as space control, is the set of capabilities or techniques that are used to gain space superiority. Space superi-ority is the ability to use space for one`s own purposes while denying it to an adversary. These issues are so important now in the era of fast-growing state activities in space and under such a big dependence on space. Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are a subset of offensive counterspace capabilities, although the satellite itself is only one part of the system that can be attacked. That is the reason why protecting space infrastructure, in the absence of stabilized international space control cooperation and difficulties in reaching an agreement on PPWT treaty and lack of progress of international space law in this matter, is crucial by building the Space Situational Awareness system. Collaboration of states in this matter seems to be a priority.
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Space Security Policy in Japan and Poland

88%
Polkowska M.
Cybersecurity and Law
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2019
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vol. 2
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issue 2
75-100
EN
This article refers to the Space security legislation in Japan and Poland. Both states have already prepared some legislation on Security in Space- the question is the following- if there is still a need of progress and if those presented legislation are sufficient for the practical purposes of the peaceful uses of Outer Space. Japan is a much more experienced state in using space than Poland; the same seems with the legislation. Poland as less experienced state in this matter has lots of ambitions to create the efficient legislation on Space security, so it must follow the good examples of states and institution in this matter. One of them is Japan. On the other state, Poland as a Member of EU must implement the European law in space security (in particular SSA), which seems to be priceless and efficient for the international cooperation in Space.
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Space Defense in Europe. Policy and Security Aspects

88%
Polkowska M.
Polish Political Science Yearbook
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2020
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issue 2 (49)
127-139
EN
Today countries participating in space activities, share serious concerns about militarization of space. The defense of space can become an important issue in the international arena, because counteracting emerging threats will probably be associated not only with the development of technology and operational capabilities, but also with the creation of political alliances or attempts at international agreement on certain “rules of the game” for space operations. Ultimately, the growing importance of “space for defense” creates the need for “defense of space”. Individual countries remain the main actors in the field of space defense. Military strategies are defined at national level, and the development and exploitation of military space assets are managed by national organizations. Today, most European countries recognize space as a strategic area, next to land, sea, air and, increasingly, cyberspace, but they have adopted different policies and doctrines depending on their sensitivity, priorities and concerns. European space forces also have different governance structures with significant differences in the distribution of roles and responsibilities, including space agencies and private entities.
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Wkład Unii Europejskiej w rozwój międzynarodowego reżimu kosmicznego

87%
Bryła J.
Rocznik Integracji Europejskiej
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2015
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issue 9
123-142
EN
The growing dependence of countries and societies on the use of space technologies results in the increasing activity in outer space of new actors, both state and non-state. It produces a number of adverse outcomes for the space environment, making it a less and less safe place (e.g. space debris). Emerging threats may affect national and international security on earth. As a result, an urgent need for a collective approach to the management of the use of outer space is emerging. The international legal regime for outer space that has been developing since the beginning of the space age is no longer sufficient, because it does not take into account many rapid changes. One of the attempts to overcome this problem is the International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities drafted by the European Union in 2008. This paper discusses the reasons why, despite long-lasting efforts and intensifying problems, the Code has so far failed to win the approval of the powers which is requisite to constitute an important part of the international outer space regime.
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NASA Space Laser Communications System: Towards Safety of Aerospace Operations

63%
Bielawski R., Radomska A.
Safety & Defense
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2020
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vol. 2
51-62
EN
Bidirectional space communication is a fundamental prerequisite for maintaining contact with objects performing missions in space, whether manned and unmanned. Until recently, it relied solely on the propagation of electromagnetic waves (the radio) using frequency bands dedicated for objects outside the Earth's atmosphere. However, modern space technologies are subject to ongoing development as they are being fitted with advanced communication systems. Given the constant enhancement of our technological capabilities, the traditional radio-based communication shows a glaring inadequacy and contributes to the widening of a gap between this and the high technology of on-board devices installed on modern space crafts. The technology that complies with the up-to-date requirements of space communication is optical space communication. It is expected to provide for high-speed data transfer and increase the band-width several times, while ensuring immunity to common cyber threats, including jamming, spoofing and meaconing. The deployment of laser - based optical communication will not only contribute to increasing the air and space operation safety levels, but also enable deep space exploration. To this end, NASA’s Laser Communications Relay Demonstration Project (LCRD) is currently undergoing development and testing. This chapter undertakes to characterize the emerging technology with respect to its operating principles, the future scope of applications and involvement in currently conducted experiments. The results from the analysis are presented in the form of scenarios outlining possible applications of laser communication.
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Anti-Satellite Weapons: A Political Dimension

63%
Czajkowski M.
Safety & Defense
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2021
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vol. 1
107-116
EN
This article tackles the political dimension of the development of anti-satellite weapons. The main goal is to assess their significance from the American, Russian, and Chinese perspective to understand the emerging balance of power in space. While the U.S. is struggling to maintain its position of dominant space power, its main adversaries are developing technologies that can diminish American dominance. It is, therefore, widely believed that outer space is poised to be weaponized by multiple systems designed to destroy satellites in-orbit, both ground- and space-based. On the other hand, the United States is executing multiple fast-track research& development programs aimed at increasing the resilience of the U.S. space systems.
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Rewitalizacja zdegradowanych obszarów miejskich jako element kształtowania bezpieczeństwa publicznego

51%
Kowalczyk J.
Bezpieczeństwo. Teoria i Praktyka
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2020
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issue 4
91-108
EN
Infrastructural projects undertaken as part of recovery schemes – including reconstruction, renovation, modernisation, and adaptation of old buildings – are aimed at counteracting negative socio-spatial phenomena. This is due to the fact that urban recovery initiatives are conducted in places epitomised by a large concentration of social problems, including unemployment, poverty, poor education, as well as crime, and low levels of safety and security. The connection between degradation of urban space and the level of security in local urban communities was noticed at the beginning of the twentieth century by researchers from the Chicago School, known for their efforts to transfer ecological orientation into social sciences. The social accomplishments of the Chicago School were further developed in the 1960s in the US and Canada. The disappointment with limited ability to influence potential criminals and the low success rate of rehabilitation schemes pushed researchers to focus on other theories pertaining to crime prevention in cities, and to focus more on spatial conditions. The emerging theoretical approaches constituted a set of postulates regarding the ways in which urban space ought to be shaped in order to effectively reduce crime rates and strengthen the sense of security in local communities. The aim of this paper is to analyse the leading urban space security postulates formulated by American and Canadian criminologists and urbanists, and to attempt to provide a sensible answer to the question of whether it is possible to use these postulates for recovery projects in disadvantaged urban areas in order to counteract negative socio-spatial phenomena.
PL
Podejmowane w ramach rewitalizacji przedsięwzięcia infrastrukturalne związane z przebudową, remontami, modernizacją czy adaptacją wiekowych budowli, mają na celu przeciwdziałanie negatywnym zjawiskom o charakterze społeczno-przestrzennym. Działania rewitalizacyjne są podejmowane w przestrzeni miejskiej charakteryzującej się dużym natężeniem problemów społecznych, takich jak: bezrobocie, ubóstwo, niski poziom edukacji i bezpieczeństwa, a także przestępczość. Związek między degradacją przestrzeni miejskiej a poziomem bezpieczeństwa społeczności lokalnej w miastach został dostrzeżony na początku XX w. przez badaczy szkoły chicagowskiej, znanej z próby przeniesienia orientacji ekologicznej na grunt badań społecznych. Rozwinięciem dorobku tej szkoły były badania prowadzone od lat 60. w Stanach Zjednoczonych oraz Kanadzie. Rozczarowanie ograniczoną możliwością oddziaływania na potencjalnych sprawców oraz niską skutecznością resocjalizacji skłoniło badaczy do skoncentrowania uwagi na innych teoriach skupiających się na zapobieganiu przestępczości w miastach, w tym na uwarunkowaniach przestrzennych. Powstałe ujęcia teoretyczne stanowiły zbiór postulatów dotyczących tego, w jaki sposób należy kształtować przestrzeń miejską, aby sprzyjała ona redukcji przestępczości oraz stanowiła czynnik wzmacniający poczucie bezpieczeństwa lokalnej społeczności. Celem artykułu jest analiza głównych postulatów sformułowanych przez amerykańskich i kanadyjskich kryminologów i urbanistów, dotyczących przestrzennych aspektów bezpieczeństwa w miastach, a także próba znalezienia odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy podczas prowadzenia przedsięwzięć rewitalizacyjnych na zdegradowanych obszarach miejskich możliwe jest zastosowanie tych postulatów w celu przeciwdziałania negatywnym zjawiskom o charakterze społeczno-przestrzennym.
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Nowy wyścig kosmiczny XX w. – USA, Chiny i Rosja

51%
Czajkowski M.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2018
|
issue 1
117-141
EN
Today’s main world powers are locked in a new phase of the Space Race, with use of outer space for their benefit at stake. Principal rivals are the USA, Russia and China. This article is supposed furst of all to describe the characteristics of this modern space race, underlining the mechanisms that define its highest level and with special attention to security related issues – it is still the most important dimension of state’s policies, especially in light of newly reinvigorated global strategic rivalry. In the next chapters motivations, goals and capabilities of USA, Russia and China are depicted, what lead us to final considerations pertaining to how in these circumstances Sino-Russian co-operation evolves and what are the perspectives for the competition between those two countries.
PL
Główne mocarstwa rozgrywają współcześnie pomiędzy sobą nowy etap wyścigu kosmicznego, w którym stawką jest wykorzystanie przestrzeni wokółziemskiej dla realizacji interesów poszczególnych państw. Główni rywale to USA, Rosja i Chiny. W artykule scharakteryzowane zostały w pierwszej kolejności cechy współczesnego wyścigu kosmicznego, z akcentem na procesy zachodzące na jego najwyższym, mocarstwowym szczeblu, i z podkreśleniem problematyki bezpieczeństwa – jest ona wciąż kluczowa w świetle polityki państw, szczególnie wobec rosnącej w ostatnich latach rywalizacji strategicznej. Omówione zostały również pokrótce cele, motywacje i możliwości USA, Chin i Rosji w tym zakresie, by wreszcie dojść do rozważań, jak w tych okolicznościach przebiega współpraca chińsko-rosyjska i jakie są perspektywy rywalizacji pomiędzy tymi mocarstwami.
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The United States Space Force in the American Security Strategy

51%
Czajkowski M.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2020
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issue 1
25-41
EN
It is often being argued that Russia, China, and other unfriendly nations are developing a wide range of counter-space systems that are able to degrade the U.S. capabilities in space. Among the other measures to address this problem, the separate service has recently been created within the U.S. military, the United States Space Force. It is tasked to combine space-related capabilities to form a unified and so more effective service than the existing ones scattered across the armed forces. This article depicts and assesses the primary rationale behind the decision to create USSF, against the broad background of the United States security strategy with particular attention to the role of outer space in it. We will, therefore, firstly describe in brief the role of outer space in the security strategy of the United States. Secondly, we will present the current state and mission of the U.S. Space Force and its perspectives. And finally, we will address some controversies related to the creation of the new military branch.
PL
Często argumentuje się, że Rosja, Chiny oraz inne nieprzyjazne USA państwa rozwijają różne środki służące zanegowaniu amerykańskich zdolności do działania w przestrzeni kosmicznej. Obok innych działań nakierowanych na przeciwstawienie się temu zagrożeniu, niedawno powołano Siły Kosmiczne Stanów Zjednoczonych jako osobny rodzaj sił zbrojnych. Ich zadaniem jest połączenie systemów kosmicznych działających na rzecz bezpieczeństwa narodowego w jeden, zunifikowany, a zatem bardziej efektywny podmiot niż w przypadku rozrzucenia tych systemów po różnych rodzajach sił zbrojnych. Artykuł opisuje i ocenia podstawowe założenia stojące za tą decyzją na szerokim tle strategii bezpieczeństwa Stanów Zjednoczonych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli przestrzeni kosmicznej. Dlatego w pierwszej kolejności krótko omówiono rolę przestrzeni kosmicznej w strategii bezpieczeństwa USA, a następnie przedstawiono aktualny stan i zadania Sił Kosmicznych USA. Na koniec odniesiono się do niektórych kontrowersji związanych z utworzeniem nowego rodzaju sił zbrojnych.
11
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Chińska strategia A2/AD. Polityczne implikacje dla bezpieczeństwa w przestrzeni kosmicznej

51%
czajkowski m.
|
2018
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vol. 12
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issue 2
69-89
EN
This paper is supposed to analyze briefly one of key elements of the Chinese strategy aimed on weakening the American military dominance, with the special attention to the role of space systems therein. It describes in the most general terms the military strategy of the United Statest, then it pictures the Chinese A2/AD (anti-access/area denial) concept as an asymmetric answer to the U.S. military supremacy. The special attention is paid to its limitations and the role of space systems in overcoming the restraints. And finally it characterizes some of the political consequences that come out of all the above and that might reflect on the general state of the space security.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł ma za zadanie pokrótce scharakteryzować jeden z podstawowych elementów chińskiej strategii ograniczania militarnej dominacji USA, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli systemów kosmicznych. W najbardziej ogólnych kategoriach omawia więc amerykańską strategię militarną; a następnie opisuje chińską koncepcję A2/AD jako asymetryczną odpowiedź na amerykańską przewagę. Szczególną uwagę zwracamy na ograniczenia tej koncepcji i rolę systemów kosmicznych w ich przezwyciężaniu. I wreszcie omawiamy niektóre polityczne konsekwencje powyższego, które mogą oddziaływać na stan bezpieczeństwa kosmicznego.
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