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PL
Artykuł rozpoczyna krótkie wprowadzenie do historii Trybunału, później zawarto w nim rozważania dotyczące jego roli w systemie Terroru orazwarunki zdobycia przez niego autonomii wobec systemu prawa. Wykorzystana do tego została zaproponowana przez Norberta Eliasa teoria usamodzielniania się instytucji o charakterze politycznym i zdobywania przez nie znaczącej władzy na skutek silnych antagonizmów. Artykuł ma udowodnić, że wzmacnianiu Terroru oraz Trybunału Rewolucyjnego służyła specyficzna sytuacja konfl iktu zewnętrznego, wykorzystywanego do uzasadniania budowy instytucji służących następnie do rozwiązywania sporów wewnątrz elity władzy. Prześledzona została politycznoprawna autonomizacja Trybunału – od momentu, gdy był on silnie zakorzeniony w obrębie systemu prawa, aż do później fazy Terroru, całkowicie administratywizującej proces walki z politycznymi wrogami.
EN
The article discusses the structure of the SS and police in Ciechanów District and presents the personal details of many officers who have committed crimes against the Polish and Jewish population.
PL
W artykule omówiono strukturę władz SS i policji w rejencji ciechanowskiej oraz przedstawiono personalia licznych funkcjonariuszy, którzy dopuścili się zbrodni na ludności polskiej i żydowskiej.
EN
The analysis of changes in Poland after 2015 based on the paradigm of the revolution has not proved unambiguously that these changes are a revolution, according to commonly accepted schemes. It showed that these changes have many features of the revolution. It is a self-limiting revolution. All changes that have taken place since 2015 destroys the system of liberal democracy, but retains its source, the system of corporate capitalism. Against the expectations of the masses, increases the oppressiveness of the state apparatus. Perhaps it is a new type of revolution, because historically speaking, the revolution always redefined itself. If we assume that Solidarity transformations was itself a new type of the revolution, then the changes after 2015, which are their generative continuation, are such kind of revolution.
EN
Terrorism is a phenomenon historically variable, multi-faceted and dynamic occurring in various forms. It is difficult at present to define a uniform definition of terrorism, which is changing under the influence of civilization, especially the rapid scientific and technical progress. Terrorists perfectly use the latest means of communication, mass media, modern communication technology and computers. The purpose of this article is therefore an approximation of the phenomenon and ways to combat it.
PL
Terrorism is a phenomenon historically variable, multi-faceted and dynamic occurring in various forms. It is difficult at present to define a uniform definition of terrorism, which is changing under the influence of civilization, especially the rapid scientific and technical progress. Terrorists perfectly use the latest means of communication, mass media, modern communication technology and computers. The purpose of this article is therefore an approximation of the phenomenon and ways to combat it.
EN
Terrorism has become a global issue since the beginnings of the 21st century and it was to have been solved by countries which, at that time, had no experience in dealing with such criminal activity. There has been a very real sense of threat in many countries and, consequently, terrorism has become one of the most important problems for today’s world. It could be seen on many occasions that terrorism is an effective and ruthless way of causing physical damage and non-physical harm. Spreading fear among the general public has become one of the main objectives of terrorists and recent occurrences have clearly demonstrated that this is effective indeed. Taking such circumstances into account, it is hardly surprising that counter-terrorist activities are drawing more and more attention. Undoubtedly, continuous cooperation between countries on an international level for handling both global and regional threats is the most effective way of combating terrorism. As far as this is concerned, creating the relevant institutions over the course of many years is essential. The EU has long been trying to ensure conformity of the legal systems of its member states in order to make it possible to engage in efficient cooperation and to create a zone of safety and stability. However, it should be emphasized that there is still much to be done.
PL
W niniejszym artykule poruszono problemy związane z charakterystyką współczesnych organizacji terrorystycznych oraz regułami ich działania. Prezentowane poglądy oparto na analizie różnic i podobieństw przeprowadzonych zamachów terrorystycznych, uwzględniając ich cel oraz zastosowane narzędzia, a przede wszystkim cechy działań terrorystycznych, tj. zaskoczenie, dynamikę, celowość działania oraz manewrowość. Pozwoliło to przedstawić charakterystykę metod działań terrorystów. Dało jednocześnie podwaliny pod rozważania w tym zakresie, które wieńczy prezentacja zagadnień odnoszących się do zakresu oddziaływania organizacji terrorystycznych w wymiarze lokalnym, regionalnym i globalnym oraz przeciwdziałania temu zjawisku
XX
This article addresses the problems related to characteristics of contemporary terrorist organizations and the rules of their operation. The views presented here are based on an analysis of the differences and similarities of terrorist attacks carried out so far, taking into account their purpose and the tools used, and, above all, the traits of terrorist activities, such as surprise, dynamism, purposefulness and maneuverability. This allows the author to present the characteristics of methods applied by terrorists. At the same time, it provides the foundations for reflection in that respect. Finally, it presents the issues related to the impact of terrorist organizations on the local, regional and global scale as well as discussing the possible ways of counteracting this phenomenon.
EN
In the article, Grzegorz Baziur described the history and the fate of the Hungarian Soviet Republic and its aggression against neighboring Slovakia, where was proclaimed Slovak Soviet Republic. It was an attempt to “export of revolution” from Hungary to Czechoslovakia. The author describes the circumstances of raising power in Budapest by the Hungarian communists and the totalitarian system that they created during the dictatorship from March to August 1919. The author discusses the social reaction to the repression and crimes of the regime of Béla Kun: from the initial public passivity to resistance in the country, and the role of Hungarian political exile in Vienna in the fight against the communists. Further author discusses the Entente’s military intervention and liquidation of the WRR and the withdrawal of the Red Army of Hungary from Slovakia at the beginning of August 1919. In the final part of the text author has devoted the situation in Hungary after the suppression of the revolution by discussing: white terror and extend the rule of Admiral Miklos Horty as regent, which was a continuation of the monarchy in Hungary.
EN
The article characterises the study of the history of communist state security organs (ChEKA/VChk-GPU/OGPU-NKVD-NKGB-MGB) in Ukrainian historiography after 1991. It names the main factors that have influenced the development of historiography. The first one is the significant scientific and public interest in the history of political repression in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the organs that carried them out and the perpetrators of state terror; second one is the interest in the archives of the former Committee for State Security (KGB) of the USSR as an important resource for studying many problems of history, and the related question of opening and expanding access to archival documents. Two main stages in the development of historiography are characterised: 1991–2009 and 2010–2021. The main works of Ukrainian historians are named and analysed with emphasis on those that were innovative in nature, based on previously unknown archival documents and opened promising directions in the study of the history of state security organs. A significant number and great importance for the further development of historiography of documentary publications was noted, especially within the framework of large scientific and publishing projects.
PL
W artykule zaprezentowano przegląd historiografii ukraińskiej po 1991 r., poświęconej komunistycznym organom bezpieczeństwa państwowego (CzK/WUCzK-GPU/OGPU-NKWD-NKGB–MGB). Wskazano główne czynniki, które wywarły wpływ na rozwój historiografii. Pierwszy z nich to znaczący wzrost zainteresowania badaczy i społeczeństwa historią represji politycznych w Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Sowieckich, organami odpowiedzialnymi za nie i sprawcami terroru państwowego, drugi zaś to zainteresowanie archiwami dawnego Komitetu Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego (KGB) ZSRS jako ważnego źródła do studiów wielu problemów historycznych. Scharakteryzowano dwa główne etapy rozwoju historiografii: lata 1991–2009 i 2010–2021. Główne prace historyków ukraińskich zostały wymienione i przeanalizowane z naciskiem na te o charakterze nowatorskim, opracowane na podstawie nieznanych wcześniej dokumentów archiwalnych i otwierające obiecujące kierunki w badaniu dziejów organów bezpieczeństwa państwa. Odnotowano znaczną liczbę edycji źródłowych, zwłaszcza w ramach dużych projektów naukowych i wydawniczych, i ich duże znaczenie dla dalszego rozwoju historiografii.
Logos i Ethos
|
2020
|
vol. 53
|
issue 1
209-230
EN
The slogan of “social justice” was variously understood in history; it was the basis of changes – in the broad sense of the word – democratic, but it also turned out to be a propaganda “catch” and an introduction to tyranny. Plato was perhaps the first who pointed out that democracy – when the theme of “redistribution of goods” and egalitarianism comes to the forefront – spontaneously turns into tyranny. Aristotle, in his policy concept (politeia), tried to prevent it. I would like to consider (in a nutshell) how these concepts “worked in history” and are currently valid. Finally, I would like to present three models of “social justice”: hierarchical (ancient), based on an equal criterion (modern, liberal) and egalitarian (utopian, leveling), which is an ideology leading to centralized, arbitrary and even tyrannical power.
PL
Hasło sprawiedliwości społecznej różnie w historii było rozumiane; bywało podstawą przemian – w szerokim sensie tego słowa – demokratycznych, ale też okazywało się propagandowym „chwytem” i wstępem do tyranii. Platon był bodaj pierwszy, który w swojej opisowej koncepcji ewolucji ustrojów zwrócił uwagę na to, że demokracja – kiedy wątek „redystrybucji dóbr” w imię egalitaryzmu i zrównania wychodzi na plan pierwszy – niejako spontanicznie zamienia się w tyranię. Próbował temu zapobiec Arystoteles w swojej koncepcji politei. Chciałbym się zastanowić (w ogromnym, rzecz jasna, skrócie), na ile te koncepcje „sprawdzały się w historii” i są obecnie aktualne. Chciałbym też – na zakończenie – zaprezentować trzy modele „sprawiedliwości społecznej”: hierarchiczny (starożytny), oparty na równym kryterium (nowożytny, liberalny) oraz egalitarystyczny (utopijny, zrównujący), będący ideologią prowadzącą do scentralizowanej, arbitralnej, a nawet tyrańskiej władzy.
PL
Olympe de Gouges i jej Deklaracja Praw Kobiet i Obywatelki (1791) - po raz pierwszy została całkowicie przetłumaczona na język polski. W swojej deklaracji de Gouges wskazała na niekongruencje francuskiej konstytucji i nieadekwatność prób formułowania powszechnych praw w tym czasie. W bezkompromisowy sposób pokazała, że domniemana równość praw dotyczy tylko tych podmiotów, które są białymi, dorosłymi mężczyznami, i że pozorny uniwersalizm rewolucyjnych idei opiera się na wykluczeniu dużej części społeczeństwa. Dla niej ostatecznym wyrazem wolności była wolność słowa; postępując w ten sposób spędziła dziesięć lat swojego życia na egzekwowaniu tego prawa. Istota politycznego ucisku była, jej zdaniem, zawarta w instytucji małżeństwa, którą postrzegała jako „miejsce niekończącej się tyranii”. Podobnie jak Mary Wollstonecraft w Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), de Gouges udowodniła, że chytrość i słabość kobiet są konsekwencją ich skompromitowanej pozycji w strukturach zalegalizowanej prawnie „unii seksualnej” z mężczyznami. Podobnie jak Wollstonecraft, walczyła z socjalnymi niedociągnięciami tej instytucji, która sprawiała, że kobiety zaniedbywały swoje wykształcenie i ograniczały się do wąskiego kręgu swoich własnych spraw, odrzucając swoje obowiązki obywatelskie. Odnosząc się do idei Rousseau, de Gouges zaproponowała zastąpienie tradycyjnego małżeństwa „umową społeczną” opartą na równości praw i obowiązków. Jej pisma, zarówno literackie, jak i polityczne, wyraźnie zmierzały w kierunku współczesnej filozofii feministycznej. Była jedyną kobietą, która została skazana na śmierć w czasie Wielkiego Terroru.
EN
Olympe de Gouges with The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen (1791) - for the first time entirely translated into Polish. In her declaration, de Gouges pointed to the incongruities of the French Constitution and the inadequacy of the attempts to formulate universal rights at that time. In an uncompromising way, she showed that the supposed equality of rights concerns only those subjects that are white, adult men, and that the apparent universalism of the revolutionary ideas rests on the exclusion of large parts of society. To her, the ultimate expression of freedom was freedom of speech; she thus spent a decade of her life on enforcing this right. The essence of political oppression was, in her opinion, created in the institution of marriage, which she incriminated as "a site of unending tyranny". Similarly to Mary Wollstonecraft in A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), de Gouges proved that the slyness and weakness of women are a consequence of their compromised position in the structures of the legalized "sexual union" with men. Like Wollstonecraft, she fought against the social shortfalls of this institution, which made women neglect their education and constrain themselves to the narrow circle of domestic affairs, rejecting their civil duties. Referring to the ideas of Rousseau, de Gouges proposed to replace the traditional marriage with "a social contract" based on the equality of rights and duties. Her writings, both literary and political, clearly headed towards contemporary feminist philosophy. She was the only woman to be sentenced to death during the Terror.
EN
The article considers terrorism as a socio-political and psychological phenomenon. In this context, the fundamental differences of terror and terrorism are revealed and the key parameters of a terrorist’s psychomental complex are schematized. Schismogenesis is considered a psychological mechanism for conflict generation.
PL
W artykule terroryzm jest rozpatrywany jako socjologiczno – polityczno – psychologiczny fenomen. W kontekście uwypuklone zostały zasadnicze różnice pomiędzy terrorem i terroryzmem. Usystematyzowane zasadnicze parametry kompleksu psychiczno mentalnego terrorysty, rozważona zmiana indywidualnego zachowania jako psychologiczny mechanizm generowania konfliktów.
EN
In the present paper the problem of changing law into terror with reference to Polish legislation is described. The problem is being approached from the points of view of morality as well as quality of law. The author argues that absence of morality of law and poor quality of law are the basis for the development of terror. The paper also describes premises of morally wrong of law taken from L.L. Fuller's work „Morality of law” and criteria of quality of law presented by G. Radbruch in „Legal philosophy”.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu przedstawienie zewnętrznych cech terrorystów. Spróbujemy w nim zobrazować wygląd terrorysty na przestrzeni lat. Jego obraz został przedstawiony na przykładach między innymi komórki partyzanckiej Zagra-Lin, która dokonywała zamachów na terenie okupowanej w czasie II wojny światowej Polski oraz w III Rzeszy, w Berlinie i Breslau (dzisiejszym Wrocławiu), a także incydentów, jakie miały miejsce w Madrycie i Londynie w latach 2004-2005. Skomentowano również zdarzenia z 27 października 2018 w Pittsburghu (USA). W artykule omówiono znaczenie świadomości społecznej współczesnych zagrożeń, a także udowodniono, że każdy obywatel danego kraju powinien być świadomy wspólnej odpowiedzialności za bezpieczeństwo otoczenia i wszelkie zmiany naszego naturalnego środowiska powinny być odnotowane.
EN
This article aims to explore the external characteristics of terrorists. We will try to look and bring the image of the terrorist over the years. The terrorist’s image was depicted on the example of the Zagra-Lin guerrilla cell in Berlin and Breslau (today Wrocław), as well as incidents from Madrid and London in 2004-2005, and October 27, 2018 in Pittsburgh (USA). The article discusses the importance of social awareness of contemporary threats, also proves that every citizen of a given country should be aware of their joint responsibility for the safety of their surroundings and that any change in its natural state should be recorded.
PL
Currently, the concept of terrorism, which in recent years has intensified so much, it is still difficult to define, there are huge inconsistencies in both its defining and application. For many years, terrorism was linked with geographically and culturally distant countries, but the 20th and 21st centuries changed the face of this phenomenon, which did not resist globalization and has become one of the major problems that befits to face the modern world. The issue of terrorism, although investigated by many eminent scientists, and even though there are a great many scientific achievements in this subject, it is still a difficult problem and raises a lot of confusion of a legal-dogmatic nature, which the Author tried to highlight herein. The article presents the analysis of the concept of terrorism and illustrates the problems associated with the broad catalogue of definitions of this term. The main problems preventing continued unification of definition are presented. Furthermore, the text assumes the analysis of the legal state instrumental for combating terrorism, with particular focus on terrorist crime contained in the Polish Penal Code.
PL
Currently, the concept of terrorism, which in recent years has intensified so much, it is still difficult to define, there are huge inconsistencies in both its defining and application. For many years, terrorism was linked with geographically and culturally distant countries, but the 20th and 21st centuries changed the face of this phenomenon, which did not resist globalization and has become one of the major problems that befits to face the modern world. The issue of terrorism, although investigated by many eminent scientists, and even though there are a great many scientific achievements in this subject, it is still a difficult problem and raises a lot of confusion of a legal-dogmatic nature, which the Author tried to highlight herein. The article presents the analysis of the concept of terrorism and illustrates the problems associated with the broad catalogue of definitions of this term. The main problems preventing continued unification of definition are presented. Furthermore, the text assumes the analysis of the legal state instrumental for combating terrorism, with particular focus on terrorist crime contained in the Polish Penal Code.
17
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On Terrorism and its Typologies

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EN
The article refers to selected aspects of knowledge about terrorism and its typology. The introduction explains the etymology of this concept and highlights the problem of diversity in the definition of terrorism. The next part cites several definitions of terrorism, which, in the author’s opinion, reflect the essence of this phenomenon. The difference between terrorism and terror, which are two terms that should not be used interchangeably, is also explained. The next part of the article illustrates the source of the problem which makes it impossible to agree on a commonly accepted definition of terrorism by giving an example of the wording of the Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism. Then, the inherent feature of terrorism is explained, which is its asymmetry. The last part of the article concerns a typology of terrorism. It presents in a synthetic way various categories of terrorism, distinguished according to such criteria as: actors, motives, strategic (final) goals, close (closer) goals, type of actions, nature of the object of attacks, international implications, and means and methods used by terrorists. The article ends with a concise summary of the considerations on the theoretical aspects of terrorism undertaken in it.
EN
Jewish culture deals a lot with survival stories – most of them became myths, especially since the establishment of the state of Israel. The Jewish ‘survival ethos’ is assimilated in Israel mostly by customs, traditions, and education. Above all, it has been claimed that military service in the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) is the most significant institution that empowers the survival ethos. As a result, it is assumed that those who serve in the IDF are characterized by hatred towards Arabs, and by being extreme nationalists. This claim is examined in the current article, which analyses the level of the sense of security threat among Israelis during the last decade, draws on data on military service and levels of trust in Israeli government institutions, and reveals an essential finding: Israeli’s survival ethos is being eroded among IDF soldiers. This finding, followed by the fact that the leaders of the liberal party in the Israeli parliament are former military generals, indicates that military service in Israel does not empower extreme nationalism; on the contrary, service in the IDF has become a moderating social mechanism. 
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EN
The article takes up a problem of a complex relationship between Hegel and the French Revolution, of which the philosopher was both a great enthusiast and a brilliant critic. The point of departure for the analysis is a critical reading of the traditional interpretations of Hegel’s relation to the Revolution (J. Ritter and J. Habermas), which enables the author to develop a “speculative interpretation of the Revolution” on the basis of Phenomenology of Spirit. The key to the understanding of the dynamics of the Enlightenment, which found its culmination in the Revolution, is the inner dialectic of knowledge and faith which constitutes this epoch. The ideas of the Enlightenment become undermined by the opposition between the German (reformation) process of working through the relation between faith and knowledge and the French (revolutionary) repression of its mutual relationship. This paradox recognized by Hegel (in R. Comay’s interpretation) leads the philosopher to formulate a dialectic position: revolution with reformation would be the work of mourning (the process of working through) on this lost object (the world of faith), whereas revolution without reformation would remain only futile melancholy of terror, compensating for the lack of reformation. The paradoxical lesson for the present times (inspired by S. Žižek’s reading) which arises from Hegel’s interpretation is the following: cultural revolution (revolution in thinking itself, in utopian dreams) is the condition of possibility of the success of social revolution.
PL
Ben-Moshe Yael, Ebbrecht-Hartmann Tobias, Terror films: The socio-cultural reconstruction of trauma in contemporary Israeli cinema. “Images” vol. XXV, no. 34. Poznań 2019. Adam Mickiewicz University Press. Pp. 69–86. ISSN 1731-450X. DOI 10.14746/i.2019.34.05. The public discourse in Israel regarding events such as the Holocaust, war, or terror attacks mostly failed to embrace the trauma caused by such events, and to integrate their effects in the collective memory. According to trauma theoreticians, the location of trauma in the discourse is related to the character of trauma as a non-narratable memory, since personal trauma exist in the void, thus marking a missing memory. This paper explores the notion of trauma in contemporary Israeli cinema as it was reconstructed during and after the Second Intifada (2000–2008). The paper focuses on feature films reflecting on experiences of terrorist violence, among them Avanim (2004), Distortion (2004), Frozen Days (2006), The Bubble (2006), 7 Minutes in Heaven (2009). These films embrace parallel elements structuring a worldview, in the private as well as the collective sphere, thus shaping the surroundings as a mirror of the self and the subjective traumatic experience as a reflection of a complex social reality.A particular focus of our analysis will also be on aesthetic strategies that cinematically express rupture and distortion of terrorist violence and trauma, especially moments of suddenness and disruption in contrast to duration and circular repetition, elements of a specific temporality of trauma that also shaped the narration and style of recent Israeli war films, such as Waltz with Bashir (2008) or Beaufort (2007).
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