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EN
The First World War proved to be an important factor of social modernization, bringing a new order in public space. Among the major changes in women’s social status after the war historians enumerate: obtaining full political rights and a wide access to education, increased education- and career-oriented aspirations, increased number of working women, as well as changes in the way of life and a revolution in women’s fashion. The same scholars point out, however, the short-lived or limited nature of many changes, e. g. those in family relations. The aim of the article is therefore to discuss the major aspects of the situation of women between the two wars, particularly those areas in which the influence of the 1914-1918 war was the most distinct and long-lived.
RU
Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w granicach nowego państwa znalazły się cztery gminy karaimskie. Ich sytuacja prawna nie była uregulowana. Potrzebę zmiany widziały zarówno władze państwowe jak i Karaimi. W 1923 roku w Wilnie społeczność karaimska rozpoczęła pracę nad przygotowaniem odpowiednich aktów prawnych. W roku 1927 miał miejsce ogólnopolski zjazd Karaimów, który na urząd hachana wybrał Hadżi Seraja Szapszała. W porozumieniu z Szapszałem w 1931 roku władze państwowe rozpoczęły prace nad projektem ustawy. Ostatecznie Ustawa o stosunku państwa do Karaimskiego Związku Religijnego w RP została uchwalona 21 kwietnia 1936 roku. Ustawa określiła prawne ramy funkcjonowania religii karaimskiej w Polsce, sposób wyboru duchownych, organy związ-ku i gmin oraz uprawnienia nadzorcze władz państwowych. Została pozytywnie odebrana przez większość Karaimów, przez których była uważana za szansę na przetrwanie własnej społeczności.
EN
Four communes with Karaite communities were located within the borders of newly independent Poland in 1918. Their legal status was unregulated. Both the Government and members of this ethnic group saw the need to formalize their position. Thus it was that in 1923 the Karaites began work on drafting the relevant legislation. In 1927 the new leader of the community (called hachan) was elected and in 1931 with his help the Government finely started work on an appropriate statute, enacted on 21st April, 1936, which established the legal foundations of the Karaite religion in Poland. The most important regulations concerned the elections of priests, organs of the Karaites Union and its communes and the Government’s rights of control over those organs. The statute was accepted by most members of this ethnic group. It was viewed as a tool to help such a small community survive.
EN
The article constitutes the second part of the study analysing the development of the public sector in the economy of the Second Polish Republic in the period from the regaining of independence in November 1918 to the coup of May 1926. The first part, published in the previous issue, concerned the period of 1918–1923. The second part presents the etatist policy of the last years of parliamentary democracy, in particular, the policy implemented by the government of Władysław Grabski which was formed in December 1923. This government, functioning until November 1925, has markedly contributed to the further growth of the state sector through, inter alia, the reform of treasury monopolies, reorganization of commercial banking and activation of investments in industry and infrastructure. The strengthening of the etatist tendencies which took place in 1923–1925 also impacted on the policy of the government of Aleksander Skrzyński, which was operating from November 1925 to April 1926. The conclusion of the article is the claim that the state sector in the economy of the Second Polish Republic in 1918–1926 was undergoing the process of continuous growth.
PL
The article presents an outline of the history of institution called University Public Lectures, which functioned at the University of Warsaw during the interwar period, starting from the year 1922. The task of the institution was to organise, on a regular basis, open lectures in order to reach a wide audience from outside the academic community. The large number of lecturers recruited from among the most eminent professors of the University of Warsaw, specialising in various fields of academic research, ensured the high substantive level of the organised lectures. The organisation of the lectures constituted one of the ways in which the University of Warsaw was carrying out its task of promoting scientific knowledge and presenting the results of the most recent scientific research to the general public. Due to the aim of the lectures, their subject matter was quite diverse and often centered around the recent problems of the Polish community and state. Although the idea of open lectures was not novel at the time, University Public Lectures contributed to the adult education provided by the University of Warsaw.
EN
This paper aims to analyse the employment of women in banking during the Second Polish Republic (i.e. interwar Poland). The banking sector was small in terms of employment. The number of people associated with this sector was 18.1 thousand in 1921 and 31.2 thousand in 1931, which accounted for 0.5-0.6% of all professionally active workers outside the agricultural sector. The banking community was dominated by men, the number of women working in banks was about 6.1 thousand in 1921 and 8.5 thousand in 1931 (30% of all human resources). This paper presents the nature of jobs performed by women, their positions and earnings. The presentation takes a number of forms: according to bank types, groups of voivodeships, size of the town and according to headquarters and branches. In all cases, the activities and earnings of women and men were compared.
EN
As Poland regained independence in 1918, it immediately had to deal with the question of how to shape its political and economic system. One important but at the same time controversial issue was the level of the state’s involvement in the economic life of the country and the measures used. In numerous debates among economists, the dominant topics included problems in the industry - in particular issues such as statism, monopolization, policy towards cartels and, in the later period, economic planning. The article presents the course of the discussion on the role of the state in the economy that took place in Poland in the years 1918-1939, as well as a review of arguments put forward by the proponents and opponents of state’s economic interventionism. For the purpose of this article, three groups that were most active in the debate were selected: the Kraków School, the Leviathan organization and the First Economic Brigade.
EN
The Second Polish Republic developed an advanced and, in many ways, modern system of social care; however, the services which the citizens were entitled to seemed to be privileges available only to a small part of the population. The origins of this situation are to be found in the specific social and occupational structure of the population, low industrialization rate and the modest financial capabilities of the state and local governments. These resulted in a limited number of people with access to social insurances, a limited scope of public health care, a selective nature of access to unemployment insurance or radical differences in access to social care. And it is this unavailability of the social offer which determines the consideration of those benefits in Poland as privileges rather than commonly available rights of the Polish citizens.
EN
The author of the article attempts to outline the status of hunting in Pomerania during the Second Polish Republic, when it was no longer reserved purely for the nobility, but yet still remained a pastime for owners of land. Undoubtedly, hunting was an important element of a landowner’s everyday life but was accessible to only minor burghers and was completely out of bounds to poorer inhabitants of towns and villages. The author describes hunting organizations, forms of hunting, issues connected with pedigree dog breeding, shooting and poaching. The most important issues raised by the author is the question posed in the title. Was hunting only an idle atavistic entertainment for landowners, or was it part of the rational management of a farm? The article presents various attitudes and opinions; the author demonstrates that for landowners, to a larger extent than for the representatives of city elites associated with hunting clubs, hunting was part of a rational economy. Hunting helped them to protect their crops; nevertheless, they managed to reconcile this need with the respect they felt for forest fauna, their passion and hunting ethics. Since hunting constituted an additional source of income, they made an eff ort to raise the quantity of game and looked aft er its physical well-being. To a great extent managing forest game resembled the breeding of farm animals, the only diff erence being that it took place in open spaces.
EN
The article presents research concerning historical memory in micro scale on the example of a monument erected by a Bialystok burgher Konstanty Kozyrski in 1937 in the Jaroszówka area. Although Kozyrski’s foundation assumed the form of a religious artefact, it was not a simple expression of religiousness, or an ordinary request for the care of supernatural forces. First of all, this action was a physical manifestation of the family’s memory and identity which did not correspond to ethnic and religious consciousness of the majority of their neighbours. Moreover, it was an attempt to legitimise the Kozyrskis’ land ownership in the period of the integration action ran by the state authorities in Poland’s twenty years of independence after World War I. The article shows the alienation of the family from the local community: the Kozyrskis were the newcomers, who emphasized their connection with the town, not the country, they were the members of the Orthodox Church, and they stood out economically owing to preferential legislation under Russification run by the Russian Empire.
XX
The article presents diverse structures of the population of Poland in the interwar period according to the level of education (including literacy and numeracy) due to gender, religious denomination and residence. The results of the population census from 1921 and 1931 were the main source of data. In the light of the empirical evidence it was stated that primary education (in total 37.5% of the general population at the age of 15 years and more) had had a dominant position in the population structure and people with a higher level of education 0.7% (1921). In the period of the Second Polish Republic the education process was selective on the grounds of gender and religious denomination; men were better educated than women. Evangelical Church members were best educated and Orthodox Church worst. As a result of a big diversity of parts of Poland with respect to the degree of the implementation of public education there was a big disproportion between regions in Poland in the level of education and the structure in terms of education (among others in the level of illiteracy). There was a big educational gap in the eastern regions and the best situation in this regard was observed in western voivodeships.
EN
To recall the history of education, for example in the period of the Second Polish Republic, it is necessary to resort to many sources. One of them, extremely important, are newspapers, which help to reconstruct discussion about some essential issues in a given period. Głos Szkoły i Rodziny periodical was issued in Płock in the years 1925-1926. The periodical was meant as a space for discussions and exchange of experiences about the family and school cooperation. While this aim may not have been reached, the newspaper is an interesting record of the history of education between 1918 and 1939, especially on the topic of the influence of the family home on school and vice versa.
PL
Artykuł opisuje stan zdrowia publicznego we wschodnich województwach Polski w okresie międzywojennym. Wskazuje na wpływ warunków życia na stan zdrowia publicznego. Omawia znaczenie chorób zakaźnych i społecznych, sposoby zapobiegania im oraz aktywność instytucji medycznych.
EN
The article describes the state of public health in the eastern voevodeships of the Second Polish Republic; reveals the impact of life conditions on public health. The author points out spread of infectious and social diseases; covers activities on their prevention and decrease; characterizes activities of established medical institutions.
EN
In pre-war Poland housing for families of modest incomes in towns (chiefly workers) was not the object of particular interest of the state authorities. Direct state involvement in solving the deteriorating conditions of workers’ housing, cooperative building and employer initiatives in providing workers’ housing were of negligible significance. Two factors had a decisive influence on the transformations of this housing policy after World War II : varied war consequences (demographic and wide-scale destruction of the housing stock), and the political concepts of the new Polish authorities. The new housing policy was already formulated in 1944-45. In accordance with the new law, local authorities acquired the right to allocate housing to people whose work required living in towns. The ideological pressure to ensure better housing conditions, above all for industrial workers, caused restrictions on investment opportunities in the private housing sector initiative. It began to change after 1956. The Polish housing question was to be solved by state-subsidised cooperative building . Distinguishing workers as that social group which for ideological reasons deserved privileged access to new housing was ever more frequently replaced in the official language of the authorities with “non-class” distinctions (faceless Mr and Mrs Kovalski). In the end phase of the People’s Republic, workers’ housing conditions bore no comparison to those from before the war. But while the gaps separating them from those of other, higher social strata remained, the disproportions were reduced as compared to those of the prewar period.
PL
W przedwojennej Polsce problem mieszkań dla rodzin miejskich o skromnych dochodach (głównie ro-botników) nie był przedmiotem szczególnego zainteresowania władz państwowych. Bezpośrednia interwencja państwa dla rozwiązania pogarszającej się sytuacji mieszkaniowej robotników, budownictwo spółdzielcze i inicjatywy przedsiębiorców miały niewielkie znaczenie. Na politykę mieszkaniową po II wojnie światowej miały decydujący wpływ dwa czynniki: różnorodne konsekwencje wojny (demograficzne, duża skala znisz-czeń substancji mieszkaniowej) i polityczne koncepcje władz nowej Polski. Nowa polityka mieszkaniowa zo-stała sformułowana już w latach 1944-1945. Zgodnie z nowym ustawodawstwem władze miały prawo przy-dzielania mieszkań osobom, których praca wymagała zamieszkania w mieście. Presja ideologiczna w celu za-pewnienia lepszych warunków mieszkaniowych przede wszystkim dla robotników przemysłowych spowodo-wała zastosowanie restrykcji wobec inicjatywy prywatnej w sektorze mieszkaniowym. Ta polityka zaczęła się zmieniać po 1956 r. Polska kwestia mieszkaniowa miała być rozwiązana przez subsydiowaną przez państwo spółdzielczość mieszkaniową. Wyróżnianie robotników jako tej grupy społecznej, która z przyczyn politycz-nych winna cieszyć się uprzywilejowanym dostępem do nowych mieszkań coraz częściej było zastępowane w oficjalnym języku władz przez dystynkcje „nieklasowe” (anonimowi Kowalscy). W końcowym okresie Polski Ludowej warunki mieszkaniowe robotników były nieporównywalnie lepsze od tych, jakimi cieszyli się przed wojną. Chociaż dystanse oddzielające ich od grup o wyższych statusie społecznym pozostały, to dysproporcje w porównaniu z okresem przedwojennym zostały zredukowane.
EN
This article discusses the manner of shaping the concept of the notary in the period following the restoration of Polish independence until 1923. This period, due to the legal solutions implemented by the partitioning states in various areas, was characterized by a multitude of provisions and the problems with their practical enforcement. As a result, there was an urgent need for unification of the Polish legal system, including the provisions on the notary, which would re-determine the legal position of this particular institution in the Second Polish Republic. This article presents the first part of the discussion on the concepts and ideas presented by individual Notary Chambers and notaries themselves
PL
Artykuł Pozycja prawna notariusza w II RP – projekty reform. Okres 1918 –1923 omawia sposób kształtowania się notariatu i jego koncepcji bezpośrednio po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości do roku 1923. Okres ten z uwagi na obowiązujące na poszczególnych terenach rozwiązania prawne państw zaborczych charakteryzował Tomasz Chłopecki 143 się różnorodnością przepisów prawnych oraz problemami w ich egzekwowaniu. W wyniku tego istniała pilna potrzeba unifikacji polskiego sytemu prawnego, w tym również przepisów o notariacie, które na nowo określiłyby pozycję prawną notariusza w II Rzeczypospolitej. Artykuł przedstawia rozważania na temat koncepcji i idei prezentowanych przez poszczególne Izby Notarialne oraz samych notariuszy ze Stefanem Górą i Władysławem Leopoldem Jaworskim na czele.
PL
Samorząd zawodowy jest jedną z form decentralizacji administracji publicznej. Ma on na celu ochronę określonych zawodów, które ze względu na interes społeczny wymagają najwyższych kwalifikacji merytorycznych oraz moralnych. Choć instytucje samorządu zawodowego swoje prawne funkcjonowanie na ziemiach polskich rozpoczęły podczas zaborów, ich znaczący rozwój nastąpił w okresie II Rzeczypospolitej. Powstał wówczas samorząd adwokacki, notarialny, lekarski, lekarsko-dentystyczny oraz aptekarski. W latach 1918–1939 instytucje samorządu zawodowego stanowiły istotny element struktury administracyjnej państwa. Korporacje zawodowe uznawane były za związki publicznoprawne, działające poprzez własne organy i posiadające jasno określone kompetencje. Rozwój samorządu zawodowego przerwał wybuch II wojny światowej, zaś jego rzeczywista odbudowa nastąpiła dopiero w okresie transformacji ustrojowej w 1989 r. Niewątpliwie regulacje prawne obowiązujące w II Rzeczypospolitej stanowiły podstawę prawną restytucji korporacji zawodowych.
EN
Professional self-government is one of the forms of decentralization of public administration. It aims at protecting certain professions which require the highest level of substantive and moral qualifications because of public interest. Although professional self-government institutions started their legal functioning in the area of Poland during the partitions, their significant development took place during the Second Polish Republic. At that time legal, notarial, medical, dental and pharmaceutical self-governments were established. In the years 1918-1939, professional self-government bodies were an important element of the state administrative structure. Professional associations were considered public associations, operating through their own bodies and having clearly defined capacities. The development of professional self-government was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II and its actual reconstruction took place only during the political transformation in the year 1989. Undoubtedly, the legal regulations in force in the Second Polish Republic constituted the legal basis for the restoration of professional associations.
XX
Aleksander Litwinowicz belonged to the group of the Generals of the Polish Army with roots in the Polish Legions. Like many officers from Józef Piłsudski’s circle Litwinowicz started his military career after 1926. When Marshal Piłsudski was in power Litwinowicz in spite of being the Commander-in-Chief of the 3rd Corps District in Grodno and the 7th Corps District in Lwów belonged to the less popular generals. He reached the peak of his military career after Piłsudski’s death, when he won recognition in the eyes of Major-General Edward Rydz-Śmigły (from November 19th, 1936 Marshal), the new General Inspector of the Armed Forces, who promoted him to the position of the Chief of the Army Administration. The outbreak of the Second World War and the internment of General Aleksander Litwinowicz were the causes why he did not come back to Poland until 1946. The postwar period is a special element of his military career; he was then bound up with Western Pomerania. Being the head of the Planning Bureau of the Government Plenipotentiary’s Office for the Rebuilding of Szczecin he became involved in the process of the post-war reconstruction of the city, including the reconstruction of the ports.
EN
This articles discusses what actions were undertaken to commemorate the first president in the Polish history. Gabriel Narutowicz was elected the President in December 1922 and assassinated by a political fanatic just a few days later, on the second day of holding the office. The death of the chief of state was a climax of fierce political war fought on the Polish political arena in 1922. Right after his assassination for some communities in the Second Polish Republic President Narutowicz became a symbolic victim of Polish national fanaticism, as left-wing formations used him as a tool to fight with right-wing groups in Poland. Their activities included fundraising to commemorate the President by erecting statues, naming streets and public institutions after him, organizing anniversary special events or publishing books, just to name a few. Not only did the results of such actions turn to be effective, they also proved to be incredibly long-lasting.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia organizację i funkcjonowanie Policji Województwa Śląskiego , formacji o stricte policyjnej proweniencji, która w latach 1922-1939 na terenie autonomii śląskiej dbała o bezpieczeństwo i porządek publiczny. w materiale omówiono (w zarysie) takie zagadnienia jak: geneza powstania PWŚl., liczebność formacji oraz efektywność działań podejmowanych na rzecz zapobiegania i zwalczania przestępczości.
EN
The article presents the organization and functioning of the Police of Silesian Province (PWŚl.), the formation of a strictly police provenance, which in the years 1922-1939 in the autonomy of Silesia was responsible for the security and public order. The paper outlines main issues such as the origin of creation of PWŚL, the number of formations as well as the effectiveness of procedures adopted to prevent and combat crime.
PL
Odrodzona w 1918 r. II Rzeczpospolita powróciła na część terytorium utraconego na Wschodzie, podejmując trudy zagospodarowania wyniszczonej wojnami ziemi. Jej obraz znalazł odbicie w lokalnej prasie i wspomnieniach żyjących na tych terenach Polonusów. Zapisały go dziesiątki tytułów czasopiśmienniczych wydawanych przede wszystkim przez ówczesny świat katolicki. Wymienione w opracowaniu tytuły wydawnictw wskazują na życiowe przestrzenie mieszkańców tamtych regionów penetrowane przez tę prasę, są niejako odpowiednikami zaledwie nazw starych polskich rezydencji na Wschodzie. Aby poznać ich treści, trzeba podjąć wnikliwą lekturę, by odkryć i przybliżyć opisane tam i wciąż mało nam znane światy, które – antypolskie i antykatolickie siły niszczyły świadomie i systematycznie. To niełatwe zadanie odcyfrowania Kresów z wciąż, po dziś dzień odkrywanej ich czasopiśmiennictwu katolickiemu Kresów Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej.
EN
Reborn in 1918, the Second Polish Republic returned to the part of the territory lost in the East to undertake the hardships of developing the war-ravaged land. Its history was reflected in the local press and the memories of the “Polonuses” living in these areas. It was recorded in dozens of magazine titles issued mainly by the contemporary Catholic world. The titles mentioned in the present work indicate the life areas of people inhabiting those regions, which were penetrated by the press and which are, in a sense, equivalent only to the names of Polish old mansions in the East. Getting acquainted with their content requires meticulous study which would allow to discover and bring closer the worlds described there and still little known to us and which were deliberately and systematically destroyed by anti-Polish and anti-Catholic forces. The uneasy task of deciphering the Borderlands from its publishing legacy which is still, to this day, being rediscovered, will constitute the content of the second part of the study devoted to Catholic periodicals in Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic.
EN
Polish intelligentsia shaped over the nineteenth century was to fulfill various tasks. One of the most important was the “state service”, implemented, among others, by working on stateowned posts. The euphoria of the independence regained in 1918 accompanied the concern for the proper organizationof a state that did not even have a nationwide government, and several political centers pretended to be in power. The country was destroyed and famished, and the borders had to be marked out by armed forces, despite the fact that there was actually no uniform army. There was no administrative apparatus that would turn economic and social-political life into peaceful work. It is not surprising that the Polish intelligentsia had an important role to play in this case, and the functioning of the state depended primarily on the number and quality of personnel it could have at its disposal. It should be noted that certainly the process of building the state and creating its apparatus have activated a fairly wide circle of professionals and activists among the intelligentsia, who did even titanic work in the difficult conditions of the interwar period, which was visible in the reconstruction and organization of the new Polish state and ensuring conditions for peaceful existence.
PL
Inteligencja polska ukształtowana na przestrzeni XIX w. miała spełniać różnorodne zadania. Jednym z najważniejszych była „służba państwowa”, realizowana między innymi poprzez pracę na państwowych etatach. Euforii z odzyskanej w 1918 r. niepodległości towarzyszyła troska o odpowiednie zorganizowanie państwa, które nie miało nawet ogólnopolskiego rządu, a kilka ośrodków politycznych pretendowało do władzy. Kraj był zniszczony i wygłodzony, a do tego granice trzeba było wytyczać drogą zbrojną, pomimo tego, że właściwie nie było jednolitej armii. Brakowało aparatu administracyjnego, który przestawiłby życie gospodarcze i społeczno-polityczne na pracę pokojową. Nic dziwnego, że polska inteligencja miała w tym przypadku do odegrania istotną rolę, a funkcjonowanie państwa zależało przede wszystkim od liczebności i jakości kadr, jakimi mogło dysponować. Należy zaznaczyć, że z pewnością proces budowy państwa oraz tworzenie jego aparatu zaktywizowały do działania dość szerokie grono fachowców i działaczy wśród inteligencji, którzy wykonywali tytaniczną wręcz pracę, w trudnych przecież warunkach dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, co było widoczne w odbudowie i organizacji nowego państwa polskiego oraz zapewnieniu warunków do pokojowej egzystencji.
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