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EN
The author of the paper analyzes verbs ‘talk’ and ‘think’ found in texts by I. NechujLevitsky. Many of those verbs and their synonyms together with their metaphorical and phraseological uses are applied to reconstruct their semantic fields. The language means used to illustrate and describe the processes of talking and thinking analyzed in the paper make it possible to conclude that the frequent occurrence of those verbs in his texts is a characteristic feature of Nechuj-Levitsky’s personal style.
EN
Semantic relations between verbs in Polish WordNet 2.0The noun dominates wordnets. The lexical semantics of verbs is usually under-represented, even if it is essential in any semantic analysis which goes beyond statistical methods. We present our attempt to remedy the imbalance; it begins by designing a sufficiently rich set of wordnet relations for verbs. We discuss and show in detail such a relation set in the largest Polish wordnet. Our design decisions, while as general and language-independent as possible, are mainly informed by our desire to capture the nature and peculiarities of the verb system in Polish.
EN
The article is dedicated to a comparative analysis of Verb’s grammar tenses in both Polish and Italian language. The essay examines the methods of expressing the dimension of the pluperfect tense (Italian trapassato prossimo) in the modern Polish language. Except only few verbs which maintained their pluperfect form, Polish as a language has evolved towards the phenomenon of lexicalization, which is possible to describe as replacing grammar constructions with lexical tools
EN
This study is based on two related semantic patterns as tertia comparationis called “resultative” and “causative-resultative”. It aims to provide answers to two guiding questions: what commonalities and differences between English and German can be identified in the way (causative-)resultativity is morphologically expressed in derived verbs? How can differences be explained in a way that relates to more general characteristics of the two languages? Examples of relevant verbs include enable, fossilise, narrow, solidify, scrap, tighten and beruhigen, erblinden, kristallisieren, personifizieren, spitzen, versteinern. One set of differences that emerges from the descriptive part as particularly striking and is consequently focused on concerns the number of verbs that have (a) only the resultative meaning; (b) only the causative-resultative meaning; and (c) both meanings: there are significantly more derived (causative-)resultative verbs that express only resultativity in German than in English. Most of the English verbs express both resultativity and causative-resultativity; none expresses resultativity to the exclusion of causative-resultativity.
EN
The verb classification of modern Belarusian Studies is mainly tailored to academic problemс. Its usability for the practical learning of the Belarusian Language is insufficient. A “text book oriented” verb typology should be based on certain verb conjugation regularities that allows for distinguishing of special forms (i.e. types) of verb paradigmс. This approach makes it possible to demonstrate the differences between Russian and Belarusian verb formс. Thus, their mingling whilst speaking can be avoided. Depending on the verb stem and the ending, the I. “Russian” conjugation (е-conjugation) corresponds to three Belarusian “orthographical” variants: the е-conjugation, the а-conjugation and the э-conjugation; the II. “Russian” conjugation (и-conjugation) corresponds to the і- and ы-conjugationс. Within each of these variants, regular types can be identified that alternate vocals, consonants or stress when conjugated. The mingling of endings when speaking Belarusian is caused by the domination of the Russian language in the everyday communication of the Belarusian population and the influence of dialectal speech.
EN
Solutions based on “equivalence interference” are proposed for various problems involving OE verbs. WG verbs with 1SG /-ͻͻmi/ were modeled on Celtic verbs with /-aami/. Pre-OE eode is from /eiͻͻde/, analogical to 1SG /eiͻͻmi/ from /eimi/. OE dyd- is from reinterpretation of peasant /dïd-/, from low-stressed /ded-/ used as a non-emphatic periphrastic, as noble /düd-/. WG /bii-/ ‘be’ was modeled on Celtic /bii-/ ‘(habitual-future) be’. Habitual-future /bi-/ (lost on the continent) re-developed in OE on the model of habitual-future /bi-/ in Brittonic. The English rule that non-indicative forms of BE are /b/-forms is from Brittonic. 3PL bi(o)đon was modeled on Brittonic /biđont/. Pre-OE /ist/ and /im/ were influenced by Brittonic /is/ and /æm/. Loss of distinct endings before 1PL and 2PL subject pronouns and loss of distinct preterit subjunctive endings were both modeled on their analogues in Brittonic.
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2015
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vol. 13
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issue 4
426-449
EN
It is not fully known whether nouns or verbs are easier to learn in a second language. A noun learning advantage has been observed for children in many languages (e.g., Gentner, 1982), but few have examined whether mature second language learners show a similar pattern. In the current study 84 university students were trained with nonce words for 96 familiar, concrete concepts (half nouns, half verbs), half labeled ostensibly, and half in contexts that allowed label meanings to be inferred. Vocabulary knowledge was assessed through recognition tests after a delay of either five minutes or one week. No evidence of a word class advantage was found-participants did not demonstrate a noun advantage. Ostensive training was superior to inferential training at five minutes but not after one week.
EN
This article is devoted to research of the phenomenon of the interference of legal language inparticular translation of the existing sentences. The text includes researches made by author on authentic texts of the judiciary. The most common mistakes made in the search for semantic equivalents and problems of translation of Russian fixed words, concretisation methods, the error of literalism has been discussed.
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EN
In this paper, we study specific relations between uses of the same verb lexeme that stem from changes in the linking of situational participants, valency complementations and surface syntactic positions - we refer to them as alternations. The focus is on the types that are expressed by lexical-semantic means and result in changes in valency frames of verbs. Lexicalized alternations can be exemplified by the well-known pair naložit seno na vůz - naložit vůz senem 'to load hay on the truck - to load the truck with hay'. We present and analyze three basic types of lexicalized alternations in Czech. They may be characterized as either conversive, or non-conversive. The conversive lexicalized alternations represents central ones in the language system and are here reffered to as (i) the lexical-semantic conversions (e.g., the locative alternation, the Bearer-Location alternation, Material-Product alternation, spread alternation etc.). On the other hand, the non-conversive alternations are rather peripheral; we can introduce/mention? esp. (ii) different structural expressions of a single situational participant (e.g. vyjít na kopec - vyjít kopec 'climb up the hill - climb the hill') and (iii) the structural splitting of a situational participant (e.g., theme-dictum splitting for Czech verbs of communication and mental action). Furthermore, we propose a formal framework that allows us to represent different types of lexicalized alternations in the valency lexicon of Czech verbs, VALLEX. For this purpose, the lexicon is divided into the data component and the rule component. In the data part, each lexical unit of a given lexeme is characterized (primarily) by its valency frame; moreover, a list of applicable lexical alternations is atached to it. Presented in the rule part are general lexical rules specifying changes in the linking of situational participants and valency complmentations typical of indyvidual lexicalized alternations.
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PL
Artykuł dotyczy 426 czasowników wybranych ze słownika nowszego słownictwa słoweńskiego Slovar novejšega besedja slovenskega jezika z 2012 roku. Analiza pokazała możliwe modyfikacje zaobserwowane przy porównaniu czasowników z tego słownika z czasownikami, które umieszczono w Slovar slovenskega knjižnega bezika z 1994 roku. Autorka artykułu korzysta z takich pojęć semantyki leksykalnej, jak polisemia, homonimia, modyfikacja znaczeń. Materiał został podzielony ze względu na kategorie semantyczne: kauzatywność, inchoatywność, terminatywność, finitywność etc. Uwzględniono także nacechowanie temporalne, aspektualne badanych jednostek werbalnych. Pokazano prefiksy tworzące analizowane czasowniki i przypisano im funkcje sygnalizowania kategorii semantycznych. W końcowej części artykułu zaprezentowano przykładowe pola znaczeniowe badanego słownictwa. Ta klasyfikacja przynosi pewne informacje na temat nowoczesnego społeczeństwa słoweńskiego. Przeprowadzona analiza udowodniła występowanie takich zjawisk, jak internacjonalizacja i globalizacja w języku słoweńskim i innych językach słowiańskich.
EN
The article is devoted to the presentation of 426 verbs, which are included in the dictionary of the newer Slovene lexicon Slovar novejšega besedja slovenskega jezika [SNBSJ, 2012]. The analysis demonstrates some modifications between the contents of SNBSJ and Slovar slovenskega knjižnega bezika [SSKJ] (the previous Slovene dictionary). The author of the paper uses such terms as homonymy, polysemy, semantic modification. The data are classified. The verbs and the functions of their parts were labeled as inchoative, terminative, finitive, resultative. The special attention was paid to the temporality and to the Slavic category, which is Aspect and to the aspectual division of the analyzed verbs. The set of used prefixes were presented together with their functions. The last part of the paper brings the semantic division of the analyzed data. This classification lets to make some observations about the modern Slovene society. The conclusions inform about such phenomena as the internationalization and globalization shown by the investigation presented in the article.
EN
This article presents an etymological analysis of several verbs of a native origin, attested mainly in dictionaries of particular Kajkavian dialects. Most of the verbs were inherited from Proto Slavic, and they include blesti ‘to rave; to experience hallucinations’, bzikati ‘to run; to rush’, dražiti ‘to harrow; to break the earth into pieces after plowing’, jaskati ‘ to cackle; to blab’, meniti (se) ‘to talk; to converse’, meždžiti ‘to crush’, musnoti ‘to strike; to flash’, regati ‘to croak’, šamotiti se ‘to be dizzy; to lose consciousness’, žveneti ‘to sound; to ring (in the ear)’. The Proto-Slavic origin of the following verbs is less certain: muzgati/mudzgati ‘to crush; to crumble’, truskati ‘to slam; to hit’. The following verbs are Kajkavian innovations: objuneti ‘to become insane’, pojuneti ‘to be irrational; to go crazy; to become senile’, preželučiti/preželočiti ‘to bend; to warp; to twist’.
PL
W artykule poddano analizie etymologicznej kilkanaście czasowników rodzimego pochodzenia, poświadczonych głównie w słownikach poszczególnych gwar kajkawskich. Większość z nich to wyrazy odziedziczone z epoki prasłowiańskiej: blesti ‘bredzić, majaczyć, mieć zwidy’, bzikati ‘biegać, pędzić’, dražiti ‘bronować, włóczyć (ziemię po orce)’, jaskati ‘gdakać; pleść, paplać’, meniti (se) ‘mówić, rozmawiać’, meždžiti ‘gnieść’, musnoti ‘uderzyć; błysnąć’, regati ‘rechotać’, šamotiti se ‘mieć zawroty głowy, tracić przytomność’, žveneti ‘dźwięczeć, dzwonić (w uszach)’; mniej pewne jest prasłowiańskie pochodzenie czasowników muzgati/mudzgati ‘gnieść, rozgniatać’, truskati ‘trzaskać, uderzać’. Innowacjami kajkawskimi są czasowniki objuneti ‘stać się niespełna rozumu’, pojuneti ‘być nierozumnym, zwariować, zdziecinnieć’, preželučiti/preželočiti ‘zgiąć, przegiąć, wygiąć, przekręcić’.
PL
Przedmiotem rozważań w niniejszym artykule są formacje czasowników wieloprefiksalnych zachowane w gwarze nadsańskiej mieszkańców wsi Jarzeń, położonej w północnej części województwa warmińsko mazurskiego, w powiecie braniewskim, w przygranicznej gminie Lelkowo. Artykuł ma na celu identyfikację typów słowotwórczych derywatów poliprefiksalnych i zbadanie ich produktywności w mowie mieszkańców badanej wsi. Formacje czasownikowe uwzględnione w procesie analizy zostały wyekscerpowane z wypowiedzi respondentów, które były nagrane i zapisane podczas eksploracji terenowych. Klasyfikacja przeprowadzona w oparciu o formanty prefiksalne wykazała, że liczniej reprezentowane są derywaty czasownikowe z dwoma formantami przedrostkowymi niż formacje wielokrotnej derywacji prefiksalnej. Produktywność w derywowaniu nowych czasowników od podstaw już prefigowanych przejawia przedrostek po- (по-), nieco mniejszą aktywność wykazuje prefiks na- (на-). W analizowanych formacjach załączenie przedrostka wtórnego do czasownika determinuje jego funkcję semantyczną do wyrażania „kumulatywności”, „mnogości” oraz skierowania czynności na wiele obiektów.
EN
The article focuses on the formation of verbs with multiple prefixes that are preserved in the dialect of Jarzeń – a village in Braniewo County (Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship). The aim of the article is to identify types of morphemes creating multiple prefixes and to analyse their application. The verbs included in the research were extracted from recordings taken during a visit in the aforementioned region. Their classification, based on types and number of prefixes, has shown that among verbs with multiple prefixes, those with two prefixes are most common. Verbs with a higher number of prefixes are less common. The prefix po- (по-) is most often applied in already prefixed verbs and is followed by the prefix na- (на-). In the analysed verbs the attachment of a secondary prefix determines its semantic function, which expresses cumulativeness and plurality.
EN
The paper presents the semantic structure of verb borrowing from German going out of use during the New Polish period. Lexical material included 86 semantic units extracted from Słownik języka polskiego (dictionary of Polish language) edited by Witold Doroszewski described as: archaic, obsolete, going out of use. The semantic structure shows that significant part of vocabulary was collected in 2 fields: ‹‹Work life›› and ‹‹Social behavior in the community›› occurring to extralinguistic circumstances like changes of work organization and realities of social life.
Język Polski
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2022
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vol. 102
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issue 2
23-35
PL
Przedmiotem artykułu są obserwowane w polszczyźnie wahania w pisowni nowszych zapożyczeń czasownikowych z języka angielskiego. Centralnym zagadnieniem jest sformułowanie zaleceń normatywnych dotyczących pisowni verbów zakończonych w pisowni oryginału na e nieme.
XX
The subject of the article is fluctuations in the notation of some newer verbal borrowings from English. The main issue is the formulation of normative recommendations which concern the spelling of verbs which in the original notation end with a silent e.
EN
An examination of English prose translations of Jerome’s Psalter from OE to EMnE reveals that there are four relevant equivalents of the Latin verb dicere: cweðan, secgan > seien > say, tell and speak. In each period in the history of English the verb dicere is translated by a prototypical verb of saying but the prototypes change over time. In OE both cweđan and secgan were amply attested but it was the former that had the status of the prototype. The two verbs are continued in ME but the use of qu8then undergoes morphological and syntactic restrictions as a result of which seien takes over the status of the prototype and is used in all examined ME texts in all contexts. Similarly, in the EMnE translation seien is selected in thirty-four out of thirty-eight contexts, with the remaining four occurrences of dicere are rendered by tell and speak, which were quite frequently attested in the examined texts in the ME period but they were selected as equivalents of loqui, annuntiare, enarrare and narrare. Consistent selection of equivalents seems to characterise the traditional approach to biblical translation, which focuses on the form in the first place. This attitude results from the conviction that sacred texts convey their message not only via direct linguistic expression and is at the same time an expression of the translators’ reverence and respect for the sacred nature of the text they translated.
PL
Badanie ekwiwalentów łacinskiego dicere w angielskich tłumaczeniach Psałterzy św. Hieronima dokonanych pomiędzy okresem staroangielskim a wczesno-nowoangielskim wykazuje, że mamy do czynienia z czterema relewantnymi odpowiednikami: cweðan, secgan > seien > say, tell i speak. W każdym z badanych okresów czasownik dicere jest tłumaczony na angielskie prototypowe czasowniki, z tym, że prototypy z upływem czasu ulegają zmianom: w języku staroangielskim występują zarówno cweðan jak i seccgan, ale to cweðan ma status prototypu. W okresie średnioangielskim oba czasowniki są kontynuowane, ale użycie quēthen podlega ścisłym ograniczeniom zarówno morfologicznym jak i syntaktycznym, a status prototypu uzyskuje seien i to właśnie seien jest użyte we wszystkich badanych tekstach i we wszystkich kontekstach w okresie średnioangielskim oraz w przeważającej większości kontekstów w tłumaczeniu z okresu wczesno-nowoangielskiego. W ostatnim okresie jako odpowiedniki dicere pojawiają się w 4 z 38 badanych kontekstów również czasowniki tell i speak, które już od okresu średnioangielskiego cechuje duża częstotliwość użycia w języku, ale w badanych tekstach są one używane jako ekwiwalenty loqui, annuntiare, enarrare i narrare. Wskazuje to na dużą stabilność wyboru ekwiwalentów (największą w okresie średnioangielskim), co z kolei jest przejawem tradycyjnego podejścia do tłumaczeń biblijnych, w których tłumaczeniu podlega w pierwszej kolejności warstwa formalna. Jest to w równym stopniu skutek przekonania, że w tekście sakralnym znaczenie niesione jest nie tylko drogą bezpośredniego przekazu językowego, co przejaw postawy szacunku dla tłumaczonego tekstu.
EN
This paper presents a phenomenon (almost) thus far unnoticed, namely the use of a periphrastic futurum for the purpose of expressing perfectivity in the future tense of the biaspectual verbs (bude vetovat, bude exkomunikovat, bude rezignovat). This is actually a competition between the perfective present tense (prezident abdikujepf.) and the periphrastic futurum (prezident bude abdikovat). One of the main aims of this text is to explain this phenomenon. The author concludes that: (1) the cause or trigger of the observed phenomenon is the homonymy of the perfective and imperfective present tense, respectively their ambiguity, which may interfere with the smooth course of communication, (2) the purpose is to clearly indicate that it refers to the action in the future, (3) the relatively unambiguous expression of perfectivity by the periphrastic futurum is made possible by the lexical semantics of the respective verbs, their “non-durativity” or “short-term nature”. Other issues dealt with in this study are: (1) the possible undesirable consequences of aspectual homonymy, (2) the ways and means of their elimination, and (3) the causes of the persistence of aspectual homonymy.
EN
The article is acontrastive analysis of word-forming potential for six Czech and Polish ono­matopoeic verbs, such as: HLTAT / ŁYKNĄĆ; 2) CHLEMTAT / CHŁEPTAĆ; 3) CHROUPAT / CHRUPAĆ; 4) MLASKAT / MLASKAĆ; 5) SRKAT / CHLIPAĆ; 6) ŠPLOUCHAT / CHLUPAĆ. Using methodology of word-formation nests, two aspects of these words were analyzed: 1) abstract word-forming paradigm, 2) aword-forming chain. The analysis showed that in both languages ono­matopoeic verbs quite regularly will derive verbs naming the result of the action and the verbs expressing intensity or weakening of the action. In Czech language there are also verbs naming completion of the action, verbs accentuating the beginning of the action or its direction. Word-form­ing chains are different: Czech are constituted by: verb → adjective → adverb, Polish by: verb → noun → verb.
CS
Záměrem autorky je konfrontovat slovotvorný potenciál onomatopoických sloves češtiny apolštiny spojených s jídlem apitím, např.: 1) HLTAT/ŁYKNĄĆ; 2) CHEMLAT/CHŁEPTAĆ; 3) CHROUPAT/CHRUPAĆ; 4) MLASKAT/MLASKAĆ; 5) SRKAT/CHLIPAĆ; 6) ŠPLOUCHAT/CHLUPAĆ. Používá při tom metodologii slovotvorných hnízd, což znamená 1) vertikální analýzu hnízda — až na typický slovotvorný svazek, 2) horizontální — postupnou derivaci, kterou lze popsat v rámci slovotvorných řetězců. Zanalýzy vyplývá, že se v obou jazycích derivují substantiva s významem výsledků děje aslovesa vyjadřující zesílení nebo zeslabení děje. K typickému českému slovotvorném svazku patří také slovesa s významem úplnosti děje, slovesa zdůrazňující začátek procesu nebo jeho směr. Slovotvorné řetězce jsou v obou jazycích odlišné: v češtině je tvoří základní sloveso → adjektivum → adverbium; v polštině: základní sloveso → substantivum → sloveso
EN
The present study deals with suffixless nouns in Czech. Two data samples are analysed to demonstrate that suffixless nouns with an action meaning mostly correspond to a pair of verbs with different themes (conveying different grammatical aspects; e.g., skok ‘jump’ < skočit ‘to jump. PFV’ : skákat ‘to jump.IPFV’), whereas non-actional suffixless nouns tend to form a single corresponding verb which uses a prefix to change the aspect (noc ‘night’ > nocovat ‘to stay.IPFV overnight’ > přenocovat ‘to stay.PFV overnight’). This distinction is applied to a third data sample to determine direction of motivation in pairs of suffixless nouns and verbs. The difference between the deverbal and denominal direction is explained by the part-of-speech category of the root morpheme which is shared by the suffixless noun and the corresponding verb(s). The relations observed are modelled as paradigms recurring across the word-formation system of Czech.
EN
The paper examines equivalents of the Latin verbs exaudire and videre in prose translations of Jerome’s Psalters executed between Old and Early Modern English. The objective of the paper is to establish the principle of equivalent selection in the analysed texts. The study revealed that exaudire and videre were translated in OE, ME and EMnE by their prototypical equivalents but the prototypes changed due to language internal factors: from prefixed ge-verbs (ge-hȳran and ge-sēon ) to their simplex equivalents (hēren > hear and sēn > see). Next, it was established that while the equivalents of exaudire represented a stable pattern: ge-hȳran > hēren > hear, the equivalents of videre tended to exhibit some variation. The variation, however, was recorded in one translation only – in the Paris Psalter. These differences stem from two factors. The first of them is language internal and follows from the universally recorded property of the verb see, which tends to develop metaphorical meanings, as opposed to hear, which does not exhibit the same tendency. The second factor is language external and is a consequence of the dominant theory of biblical translation, which was based on the principle that every word of the text was sacred. As a result, biblical translations generally reflected the original very closely. The only text which exhibits dynamic correspondences is Old English Paris Psalter, which focuses on the clarity of the message not on the closeness of the rendering. The remaining translations are characterised by extreme reverence to the sacred nature of the text in all its layers, which results in the static equivalent selection.
PL
Artykuł analizuje odpowiedniki łacińskich czasowników exaudire i videre w angielskich tłumaczeniach Psałterzy św. Hieronima dokonanych pomiędzy okresem staroangielskim a wczesno-nowoangielskim w celu ustalenia zasad rządzących wyborami ekwiwalentów w analizowanych tekstach. W drodze badania ustalono, że oba łacińskie czasowniki były tłumaczone na język angielski (w przeważającej większości przypadków) przy pomocy czasowników prototypowych, z tym, że pod wpływem zmian zachodzących w języku prototypy te ulegają zmianom. W języku staroangielskim status prototypów miały czasowniki prefiksalne ge-hȳran i ge-sēon, podczas gdy poczynając od okresu średnioangielskiego, były to ich nieprefiksalne odpowiedniki: hēren > hear i sēn > see. Następnie ustalono, że o ile odpowiedniki czasownika exaudire były we wszystkich testach i w wszystkich kontekstach takie same, to odpowiedniki videre wykazywały zróżnicowanie, ale dotyczyło ono wyłącznie tłumaczenia staroangielskiego. Różnice te wynikają z dwóch czynników. Pierwszy z nich jest ulokowany wewnątrz języka i wynika z uniwersalnego dla czasownika widzieć rozwoju znaczeń metaforycznych, które występują również w badanym tekście. Drugi jest pozajęzykowy i związany jest ze średniowieczną konwencją tłumaczeń tekstów biblijnych: jedynym tekstem, który tej konwencji się opiera i w którym te metaforyczne znaczenia tłumaczone są kontekstowo, tj. za pomocą różnych czasowników, jest staroangielski Psałterz Paryski. Wszystkie pozostałe teksty cechuje stały wybór ekwiwalentów, przez co wpisują się one w średniowieczną konwencję tłumaczeń sakralnych, które charakteryzuje niezwykła bliskość tekstowi oryginalnemu.
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