Family life in Europe has undergone many changes in the twentieth century. Th ese include the lifestyle of women, their legal freedom, family relations, relations with partners, relations with the older generation, and relations with children. Th e position of women in society has also undergone many transformations. Problems remain, however, in the social and family policy of the state, as women engaged in the working process give preference to their own plans and their need for self-fulfi lment. Th e main goal of state family policy in the twenty-fi rst century is, then, to ensure a harmonious balance between professional activity and family life.
The considerations presented in the paper demonstrate that the situation of women in the European labor market has considerably improved over the last decade. This is facilitated, among other things, by the extensive legal instruments stipulated in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and in so-called ‘equality directives’. Yet, despite this extensive and moderately coherent system of legal protection of women in the labor market, they continue to have a weaker position than men. Gender segregation in the European Union is a considerable problem; it is exemplified by women’s limited access to attractive positions and a gender pay gap, i.e. obtaining lower remuneration than men employed in comparable positions. There are also other factors that influence limited women’s activity in professional life. For a long time women have been second to men in terms of education, but the differences in this area have been gradually decreasing in recent times. What continues to be a factor to curb the participation of women in the European labor market is insufficient childcare provisions. It should be pointed out that confronting demography with employment, and requesting that women choose between home and family or work falsifies the problem. This has clearly been noted in the Europe 2020 strategy, which creates a feedback between women’s employment and their traditional role of guardians of home and hearth. This is facilitated by flexible instruments in the labor market, such as contracts typical for a flexecurity model, e.g. non-standard contracts and flexible hour contracts. Their implementation can contribute to maintaining a positive trend that has recently been manifested in an increasing rate of employed women.
The stereotypes that concern the roles determined by one’s sex convey the traditional understanding of the place, role and activity of men and women in society. The paper analyzes the leading Polish news programs in respect of female presence. This presence was defined in a two-fold manner: women as the authors of material in news programs and women as participants of the events reported. In the first case, the number and subjects of reports prepared by female reporters was analyzed and the frequency with which they act as anchors of news programs. The second aspect of the research concerned female participants of stories covered in news programs. The analysis in particular concerned the roles which female protagonists of news reports played. A working hypothesis assumed that women in news programs will be presented in their traditional roles as perceived by society. The analysis corroborated this assumption. Female reporters more frequently than male reporters covered social topics and the stories of ordinary people, i.e. the realms that are traditionally perceived as female, while female protagonists of the events covered most often played the private roles of mothers, wives or witnesses. The professional roles of women included politicians related to the social sectors (labor and social care, education, health) or press spokeswomen. The conclusion of the paper is that the news programs of the leading TV stations do not show the reality but rather reflect and reinforce the image of which sex should play which roles in the public domain.
The paper discusses two prominent figures in Polish literature, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski (1812–1887) and Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916), and the role women played in their lives, influencing their works. In the beginning, the author devotes some attention to the role of ‘muses’ and their inspiration to artists from Antiquity to Romanticism. In the analytical part of her paper, she presents the differences between these two masters of the quill. Kraszewski let excessive emotions take the reins in his private life, as a consequence of which he frequently misplaced his affections, suffering considerable disappointments. Sienkiewicz, although highly susceptible to female charms, was more mature, as is well reflected in his works. His life experience influenced the artistic maturity of his female protagonists. Thus, towards the end of his life, he was able to conclude that love was the highest value. The ‘muses’ of this first Polish Nobel laureate in literature exerted a profound influence on the literary profile of the heroines of his greatest novels.
The paper discusses the role of women in public life, in particular in the realm of politics. Surveys show that women do well in free market economies, where they rank quite highly in the European Union (35% of employers), whereas their participation in politics is considerably smaller. The paper presents the data on women participating in the highest bodies of representational authorities and local governments, as well as their achievements in the Women’s Parliamentary Group and their struggle to obtain parity on electoral ballots, concluded by winning a 35% quota.
Artykuł „Kwestia kapłaństwa kobiet we współczesnym Kościele” jest próbą odpowiedzi na pytanie o miejsce kobiety w Kościele w perspektywie dążeń, jakie zachodzą w społeczeństwie oraz we wspólnotach chrześcijańskich. Prezentuje uzasadnienie jednoznacznego stanowiska Kościoła, ukazując pokrótce geniusz kobiety zaznaczony w dokumentach Jana Pawła II oraz jego propozycje dla realizacji zadań stawianych przez wspólnotę Kościoła kobiecie oraz kontynuację tej myśli u Benedykta XVI i jego odpowiedzi na święcenia kapłańskie, biskupie kobiet w kościele anglikańskim. Porusza również zagadnienie ordynacji kobiet w kościele protestanckim i wspomina o postulatach feministycznych. Przedstawia historię święceń kobiet oraz ukazuje odpowiedź Kościoła prawosławnego na postulaty dążeń kobiet do kapłaństwa.
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Article “Issue of the priesthood of women in contemporary Church “is an attempt of the answer to a question what place of the woman is at the Church in the perspective of aspirations which are occurring in the society and in Christian ties. We will trace justifying of the explicit stance the Church in it so, we will portray the genius of the woman emphasized in documents of John Paul II as well as his proposals briefly for the execution of tasks put by community of the Church for the woman in order next to go to kobntynuacji of this thought at Benedict XVI and his response to the ordination, bishop of women at the Anglican church. We will also analyse the issue of the statute of women at the Protestant church, as well as we will mention feminist demands. We will present the history of holy orders of women at the end to portray the reply of an Orthodox church to demands of aspirations to the priesthood by women briefly.
The aim of the article is to systematise the reflections on the way of portraying women in the work of Ulrich Seidl — with particular emphasis on the Trilogy of Virtues — which consists of films: Paradise: Love, Paradise: Faith and Paradise: Hope. The author will show that the director focuses on the issue of the body and perceives his protagonists through this prism. Thus, for Seidl, body and physicality become an element of narration that connects women of different ages and experiences, much more than the fact that they are related to each other. The body serves the Austrian as a medium for reflection on the problem of social exclusion, one of the causes of which is precisely physicality, which differs from the image of the body approved by contemporary culture. The author demonstrates that the director immortalises the body in the context of what remains isolated in culture in the taboo sphere, and thus remains an element of social and cultural exclusion.
Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the opinion of pregnant women on motherhood and related beliefs about the maternal instinct, vocation to a parenthood, marital obligation, the obligation of religious and social upbringing of children. Material and methods: Study was conducted on 200 pregnant women in the range between 20-44 years attending antenatal classes at the City Hospital in Białystok. The material was collected through an original questionnaire which consisted of 26 closed and semi-open questions. Results: Most respondents (84%) planned their pregnancy, 70% used various methods of contraception before getting pregnant. Among pregnant women under 30 years old 73% said that they planned their gestation, the number rises to 93% among women over 30 years old. Seventy-five women (60%) under 30 years said they did not use birth control methods. Conclusions: A significant percentage of respon-dents present different from widespread views on the maternal instinct, parenting, legalization of their relationship, and responsibility for raising a child, thanks to which they break stereotypes common in Poland. Attending childbirth classes reduces fear of labour, supports women psychologically and allows to find oneself in the new situation.
The author addresses the problem of identity transformation among women who migrated to the UK after 2004. The article contains analyses based on empirical evidence, utilizing the Internet as a research tool, which provided valuable insight in the changes that occurred with respect to self-identity of an individual – in this particular case, Polish women. The research sheds light on the pace of the internal, socio- and psychological transformations. The changes not only affect identity, but also strongly influence migrants’ perception of the surrounding environment. This in turn results in re-evaluation of earlier ideological, philosophical, religious, and cultural paradigms.
In seeking to combine the concept of the ‘Feminine’ and ‘Aesthetics,’ the approach here is to carry out an initial examination of Walter Benjamin’s aesthetic theory, then delve into his texts on Eros, leading to his personal correspondence. These combined references will indicate his change of mind, moving from the feminine, as unique, towards its ‘constellation formation’. Montage is the medium of leading with quotation as a mosaic incorporating the image of constellation. The use of montage has parallels in certain avant-garde art movements, its purpose being to disrupt a purely linear approach, in order to cope with the reality of the fragmentation of experience. Although we have little evidence of Benjamin’s theory being connected to Gender Studies, we can take his theory on Eros as an example of how this philosopher foresaw some of the contemporary questions concerning women, amalgamating these with his Aesthetics theory.
Introduction: Menopause is a normal, natural event—defined as the final menstrual period and usually confirmed when a woman has missed her periods for 12 consecutive months. Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the climacteric symptoms, and the quality of life of women in the menopausal period. Material and methods: The study was conducted in 241 women in age over 40 years. The Polish version of the MRS scale, the Kupperman index, The Beck Depression Scale and a self-administered questionnaire were used. Results: 83.4% thought that menopause is not a disease, and 34.2% considered that the symptoms of menopause are caused by genetics. The majority of the respondents (91.2%) heard about the hormonal treatment of menopause. According to 60.2% hormone replacement therapy during menopause is not needed, and 43.3% reported that it carries some risk. The average value of the Kupperman index was 14.8 ± 8.6, and the Beck Depression Scale was 10.5 ± 7.9. Almost 40% of the respondents had no depression symptoms. The Menopause Rating Scale score per subscale was as follows psychological symptoms:4.8 ± 3.4, somatic: 4.9 ± 3.0, urogenital and sexual symptoms: 2.5 ± 2.4. The Kupperman index was higher among women were no longer menstruating. Conclusions: Most of the women perceived menopause as a period at which the expiration of ovarian function. Hot flashes, irritability, lack of energy, vaginal dryness and reduced libido were more frequently reported. Most of the respondents assessed positively their quality of life
The main goal of the article is to present telework as a form of employment for parents with young children and its evaluation in the context of methods counteracting the depreciation of human and social capital – both from the labour demand and labour supply perspectives. The paper consists of two parts: a theoretical perspective and a practical one. The first part of the paper begins with a reflection on the phenomena of the depreciation of human and social capital in the light of literature review, especially with reference to the situation of parents raising young children. In the following – more practical – section, the concept and types of telework are introduced as well as its advantages and disadvantages from the points of view of employers and employees.
„To change the world, one has to change the ways of making the world, that is, the vision of the world and the practical operations by which groups are produced and reproduced” (Pierre Bourdieu). Recently, gender relation on a labour market is a widely discussed problem. In my work I focused on a few elements connected with gender relations on the labour market. I investigated the issue of women’s discrimination from a perspective of women who decided to enter into self-employment. I discussed push and pull factors that decided why women wanted to become self-employed, barriers they need to faced, benefi ts connected with being self-employed and relations between entrepreneurs. Main goal was to describe the phenomenon of self- employment, taking into consideration its ability to change unequal access to economic power on the labour market and, as a result, in the whole social order.
Songs of the elder nuns (Therīgāthā) is a collection, which can be very interesting for the research in the area of religious studies. It is unique both in ancient Indian literature as well as in the world's religious literature. It constitutes the ninth part of the Khuddaka Nikāya of the Pāli canon. According to Buddhist tradition, it is composed of songs whose authors are the elder nuns (therī) – this is probably the only case where texts authored by women are recognized as part of the official canon of religious texts. The songs that form the collection are composed in the form of hymns bearing the features of personal accounts of nuns describing their path to obtain their liberation. They are often individual biographies, which describe the social origins and the motivations for conversion. This article aims to outline possible areas of research within which Therīgāthā can be analyzed and reflects upon the potential difficulties and limitations faced by researchers of the text.
The present study investigates the differentiating role of religious involvement in a level of resiliency, religious orientations, and life attitudes in a sample of 131 women. We examined the associations between resiliency and religious orientations as psychological resources, and life attitudes as an indicator of mental health in the noetic dimension in 4 groups. The following methods were used: the KPB-PO (Uchnast, 1997), a set of scales “Your religiosity” (Socha, 1992), and the Life Attitude Profile-Revised (Reker, 1992). Analyses of the data confirmed that religious involvement differentiates the level of resiliency, intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations, as well as life attitudes excluding death acceptance. Furthermore, the results suggested that resiliency is an important resource in believers and non-practicing believers. Sense of security is a relevant correlate of meaning of life in non-believers. However, internally motivated religiosity which is characteristic of deep believers seemed to have the greatest influence on mental health.
The present paper attempts to categorize the different types of feminine characters who interact in one way or another with Silas Ruthyn. Emphasis will be placed upon the stylistic marks that appear in the Sheridan Le Fanu novel in which the mauvais sujet is dealt with.
The role of mentoring for women in sports industry has gathered attention among researchers in the past years (Bower, 2009; Bower, & Hums 2009, 2014; Weaver, & Chelladurai, 1999, 2002). Since few women are in leadership positions (Acosta, & Carpenter, 2014), cross-gender mentoring relationships are more likely to happen (Hopkins et al., 2008). However, according to Kram (1985), cross-gender mentoring relationships are more complex in terms of individual development and quality of the developmental relationship. In particular, role modeling function is limited (Kram, 1985). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the functions of the same gender mentoring relationships looking at coach Pat Summitt, the winningest coach in NCAA Division I basketball history and a woman in leadership position (Becker & Wrisberg, 2008). Due to the exploratory nature of the study and the huge impact of Pat Summitt on sport (Janssen, & Dale, 2002, De Marco, & Mccullick, 1997), a single case study design to analyze her relationships from the staff and players’ perspectives was utilized as the method for data collection. This study collected data published on American news sites located using Internet search engines Google News (http://www.google.com) for 7 days. The dataset included content published through national and regional online news media, radio, television and entertainment websites and blogs. Texts were qualitatively reviewed with a content analysis and coded (Patton, 2002). This study identified career and psychosocial functions that were important in developing an effective mentoring relationships. In particular, the psychosocial functions of “role modeling” was identified as the most important for the relationship. In fact a female mentor as a role model can be perceived as a woman that has successfully overcome discriminatory barriers to career advancement.
In a discussion about a place of women in contemporary political life, the role of various actions and mechanisms aiming at increasing female involvement is extremely significant, since today women represent slightly more than half of the world population, and their participation in formal political structures remains insignificant. Without any doubt, since 1989, one may observe increasing women’s role in Polish political life. One of the proofs for it is a higher number of women registered as candidates before parliamentary elections, as well as higher percentage of women in Polish Sejm. In spite of this, Polish women are still less active in the political life than men, which results from the existence of several barriers hindering their participation and involvement in politics. The main aim of this article is to analyse the opinion of Poles on the activities of women in political life and introduction of additional mechanisms having the potential to increase women’s participation in political bodies. The research was based on empirical data collected in November and December 2013 within the project “Political preferences: Attitude – Identification – Behavior”.
This article analyses the social structure and composition of Hasidic groups at the level of the community, i.e. the elementary social unit of the Hasidic movement. As it demonstrates, the emergence of such groups usually followed the pattern of several stages, beginning with splintering individuals escaping from the control of the kahal, followed by the establishment of a Hasidic prayer hall, known as a shtibl, by far the most important institution of Hasidism outside of the Hasidic court. The two most typical compositions of the Hasidic group centered around the shtibl were peer groups, usually dominated by young men, and interest groups. Most importantly, women were consistently excluded from any participation in the Hasidic group and its activities.
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